IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-2) 


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Sdences 
Corporation 


33  WEST  MA«N  SYSEiT 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  MS80 

(716)  S73-4S03 


<rv>«r' 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CiHM/ECMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historictii  IVIicroreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  do  microreproductions  historiques 


k, 


£ 


\ 


1981 


Tachnicd  and  Bibliographic  Notas/Notas  tachniquaa  at  bibiiog<aphiquat 


Tha  instituta  has  attamptad  to  obtain  tha  best 
origiriai  copy  avaiiabia  for  filming.  Faatuias  of  this 
copy  which  may  b«  bibiiographicaily  unlqua, 
which  may  altar  any  of  tha  imagas  in  tha 
raproduction,  or  which  may  significantly  chantja 
tha  usual  mathod  of  filming,  ara  chackad  balow. 


y 


n 


□ 


n 


D 


Colourad  covars/ 
Couvarturo  da  couleur 


I     I    Covars  damagad/ 


Couvartura  andommag6a 


Covars  rastorad  and/or  laminalad/ 
Couvartura  rastauria  at/ou  padiculia 


I      I    Ccvar  titia  missing/ 


La  titra  da  couvartura  manqua 

olourad  maps/ 

artas  gdographiquas  an  coulaur 

olourad  ink  (i.a.  othar  than  biua 
Encra  da  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bieue  ou  noire) 


j      I    Coloured  maps/ 

I     1    Coloured  ink  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)/ 


I      I   Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 


Planches  et/ou  illuxrations  en  couleur 


Bound  with  other  material/ 
Reli6  avec  d'autres  documents 


r~7|    Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distor^^ion 


along  interior  margin/ 

La  reliure  serrde  peut  causer  da  I  ombre  ou  de  la 

distortion  la  long  de  la  marge  intdrieure 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restoration  may 
appear  within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these 
have  been  omitted  from  filming/ 
II  se  peut  que  certaines  pages  blanches  ajoutias 
lors  d'une  restauration  apparaissent  dans  la  taxta. 
mais,  lorsque  cela  itait  possible,  ces  pages  n'ont 
pas  M  film6es. 

Additional  comments:/ 
Commentaires  supplimantaires; 


L'Institut  a  microfilm^  la  mailleur  exemplaire 
qu'il  lui  a  6t6  possible  de  se  procurer.  Les  details 
de  cet  exemplaire  qui  sunt  peut-Atre  uniques  du 
point  de  vue  bibliographique,  qui  peuvent  modifier 
une  'mage  reproduite,  ou  qui  peuvent  exige/  une 
modification  dans  la  m6thoda  normale  de  filmaga 
sont  indiqu6f.  ci-dessous. 


|~~1   Coloured  pages/ 


D 


Pages  de  couleur 

Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  endommagies 

Pages  restored  and/oi 

Pages  restaurAas  et/ou  peiilcuiies 

Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  f  oxei 
Pages  dtcolorAes,  tachattes  ou  piquias 

Pages  detached/ 
Pages  ditachtes 

Showthroughy 
Transparence 

Quality  of  prir 

Qualit^  inigaia  de  I'impression 

Includes  supplementary  matarii 
Comprenr)  du  material  supplAmantaira 

Only  edition  available/ 
Seula  Mition  disponible 


I — I  Pages  damaged/ 

I      I  Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 

I      I  Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 

I      I  Pages  detached/ 

I      I  Showthrough/ 

r~^  Quality  of  print  varies/ 

I      I  Includes  supplementary  material/ 

I      I  Only  edition  available/ 


T 
t( 


T 

P 
o 
fi 


0 
b 
tl 

si 
o 
fi 
si 
o 


T 
si 

T 

N 
di 
ei 
b. 
ri 
re 
nn 


Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata 
slips,  tissues,  etc..  have  been  ref limed  to 
ensure  the  best  possible  imege/ 
Les  pages  totalement  ou  partiellement 
obscurcies  par  un  feuillet  d'errata.  une  pelure, 
etc.,  ont  M  fiim^ej  A  nouveau  de  fa9on  A 
obtenir  la  meklleure  image  possible. 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  att  film6  au  taux  de  rMuction  inJiquA  ct-dessous. 


10X 

14X 

18X 

22X 

26X 

»X 

1 

/ 

H 

! 

Mii^aKi 

J 

12X 


16X 


20X 


24X 


28X 


J2X 


The  copy  filmed  here  has  been  reproduced  thanks 
to  the  generosity  of: 

Library  of  the  Public 
Archives  of  Canada 


L'exeriiplaire  film6  fut  reproduit  grdce  d  la 
g*n6rosit6  de: 

La  bibliothdque  des  Archives 
publiques  du  Canada 


The  images  appearing  here  are  the  best  quality 
possible  considering  the  condition  and  legibility 
of  the  original  copy  and  In  keeping  with  the 
filming  contract  specifications. 


Original  copies  in  printed  paper  covers  are  filmed 
beginning  with  the  front  cover  and  ending  on 
the  last  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, or  the  back  cover  when  appropriate.  ^11 
other  original  copies  are  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, eind  ending  on  the  last  page  with  a  printed 
or  illustrated  impression. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  •'-^>  (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  the  symbol  V  (meaning  "END"), 
whichever  applies. 


Les  images  suivantes  ont  6t6  reproouites  avec  le 
plus  grand  soin,  compte  tenu  de  la  condition  et 
de  la  netteti  de  I'exemplaire  film6,  et  en 
conformity  Qvec  les  conditions  du  contrat  de 
filmage. 

Les  exemplaires  originaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  est  imprimde  sont  filmte  en  commenpant 
par  le  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
dernidre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illurtration,  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  salon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  filmds  en  commenpant  par  la 
prcmitkre  psge  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  dernidre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  des  symboles  suiv^nts  apparaltra  sur  la 
dern'dre  image  do  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbols  — ►  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  le 
symbols  V  signifie  "FIN". 


Maps,  plates,  charts,  etc.,  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios.  Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  are  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  6tre 
film^s  d  des  taux  de  reduction  diff6rents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  dtre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  clirh6,  il  est  fiimi  d  partir 
de  I'angie  sup6rieur  gauche,  da  gauche  d  droite, 
et  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'images  ndcessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  mdthode. 


1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

PUBLISHED 
MONTHLY 


THOMSON  9TAT10NBIIY  CO..  U>. 
I.  •.C.  Nblson.B.C. 


SUtSSCRIPTION  PRICE, 
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.*} 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


.AND. 


ARCHyCOLOGY 


BY 


DANIEL  WILSON   and  E.  B.  TYLOR 


:^^?^^.g^^^ge^!2ga^g^^^^8g^!a2fefefe!2 


NtWYORK 

THE  HUMBOLDT  PUBL13H1NQ  COtlPANt 

G4  nmi  -AVENUE 


^/ji^g?a5^i^^>ig%5^^:a^^^^ 


S 


BMTKRBD  AT  TBI  MXW  YORK  rOM?  OmOB  AS  SBOOMD  OLAM  HAinCR. 


tt 


100,000  SOLD, 

HYPN0Tl5m__ 

.,.-    History    a«^^        /AonqtrOM    W.  ^f 

By  FREDRK  B  0^° ---  -""-"^-^ 

BY  BARON  mLESPOSEt.  n 
Director  of  A=  Bos.o„  =chool  of  Gy  _  ^^^^^ 

Paper  Cover  (No.  1  i  ,,  1. 

Cloth,  Extra,       "  ^ rT"" 

PRESS  NOTICES. 

^'t/r5*e  .,ew  bo*,  have  more  m.=r«  .^  ^  ,^^^,„.,„,  ,„d  dangerous  srudy.- 
"-^X^-j'ofhypnoUsm  '-" '"«°";.^""^.,^,„,.  ,„•,„„„  nrasrerin  aU  .rarrslaOons- 
^,15  "«/faf  Ji^.'^StSing  .0  many,  and  ,t  rece  ^^  ^.^^  ^^, 


t.; 


Medtcat  ^•Vr'^'-^xx  be  fascmaxius .  .      ^oald  keer  ^V  """ 


=^'  """^irthU  «oA.-S'<»'-'"*  ijrre  said  under  '^XScTMr-al 
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'-  --.-^  ^'IJery^hJ^dan'.hould  read  th.s  voiume  „,.,„„y«d  .sub^« 

our  knowledge.    Every  P  y  ,„.  ,„  a  much-disussed  agd  fc«  ^^^pean  psyctaatry.- 

(S'l.Ts'l^ontribu«onldead1:^^^^^  ^""  oi,  the  onward  marcb 

'"^-"TSwtcWcag"  --ok.    Hypnotisms. ^J^-LV^Wf--" 

^"'¥lf  ?S    interest; 


'„„  .0  American  stuae.^  ■  ___^^_^^ 

„„t     Hypnotism  IS  on  tneo.^^^^^^ 

tothe-ront  asasc 


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^''^^Ji^^^S^^S?-^^^  *»»'"  »*  'o    manifestation,  are 

•J*^SUTl    les  of  mesmerism  and  a,.*aJ^rp?esS'  ^-iedge  of 

Manv  of  the  royfte"^,!,:„ed  as  far  as  they  can  u  Bibrnstrom,  m 

«rHK'"K»;^  ""SSrrincrease  v.* 
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It. 


9ttA> 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


:eats 
:ents 


V.:i 


BY 


DANIEL    WILSON,     LL.D., 

AVI  HOR  OF  "  PREHISl'ORIC  MAN,"   ETC., 


WITH  AN  APPENDIX  ON  ARCHEOLOGY,  BY  E.  B.  TYLOR,  F.R.S. 

AUTHOR  OF  "  PRIMITIVE  CULTURE,"  ETC. 


-Sunday 

,  study.— 

lations.— 

npathetic 

3  with  the 

int  state  of 
/  Journal 

ed  subject 
ychiatry.— 

vard  march 
Wical  Free 

on,  are  here 
dge  of  psy- 

ibrnsirdm,  >» 
been  able  to 

some  of  the 
itsideofany 
^edical  Jour- 

.lopuient.  and 

verv  instruc- 

infittoberead 

csophy  of  toxic 

er.does  it  be- 
whatitt»;Or 

i  entire  subject- 


,1.  SCOPE  OF  THE  SCIENCE. 

Anthropology  {\.\i&  science  of  man, 
vdpunoc,  /lo}'Of^  denotes  the  natural 
history  of  mankind.  In  the  general 
classification  of  knowledge  it  stands 
as  the  highest  section  of  zoology  or 
the  science  of  animals,  itself  the  high- 
est section  of  biology  or  the  science 
of  living  beings.  To  anthropology 
mtribute  various  sciences,  which 
Id  their  own  independent  places  in 
field  of  knowledge.  Thus  anat- 
|iy  and  physiology  display  the  struct- 
and  functions  of  the  human  body, 
lile  psychology  investigates  the 
derations  of  the  human  mind.  Phi- 
|logy  deals  with  the  general  princi- 
;s  of  language,  as  well  as  with  the 
blations  between  the  languages  of 
irticular  races  and  nations.  Ethics 
moral  science  treats  of  man's  duty 
rules  of  conduct  toward  his  fellow- 
len.  Lastly,  under  the  names  of 
[ociology  and  the  science  of  culture, 
considered  the  origin  and  devel- 
>ment  of  arts  and  sciences,  opin- 
5,  beliefs,  customs,  laws,  and  insti- 
itions  generally  among  mankind, 
"tir  course  in  time  being  partly 
irked  out  by  the  direct  record  of 
tory,  while  beyond  the  historical 
it  uur  infonnation  is  contiqwed  by 


inferences  from  relics  of  early  ages 
and  remote  districts,  to  inf^rpret 
which  is  the  task  of  prae-historic 
archgeology  and  geoloo:y.  Not  only 
are  these  ,arious  sciences  concerned 
largely  with  man,  but  sevc'al  among 
them  have  in  fact  suffered  by  the 
almost  entire  exclusion  of  other  ani- 
mals from  their  scheme.  It  is  un- 
doubted that  comparative  anatomy 
and  physiology,  by  treating  the  hu- 
man species  as  one  member  of  a  long 
series  of  related  organisms,  have 
gained  a  higher  and  more  perfect 
und'^rstanding  of  man  himself  and  his 
place  in  the  universe  than  could  have 
been  gained  by  the  narrower  investiga- 
tion of  his  species  by  and  for  itself. 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  hitherto 
certain  other  sciences — psychology, 
ethics,  and  even  philology  and  sociol- 
ogy— have  so  little  followed  so  profit- 
able an  example.  No  doubt  the  phe- 
nomena of  intellect  appear  in  vastly 
higher  and  more  complete  organiza- 
tion in  man  than  in  beings  below  him 
in  the  scale  of  nature,  that  beasts  and 
birds  only  attain  to  language  in  its 
lower  rudiments,  and  that  only  the 
germs  of  moral  tendency  and  social 
law  are  discernible  among  the  lower 
animals.  Yet  though  the  lAental  and 
moral  interval  between  man  and  the 


r 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


nearest  animals  may  be  vast,  the 
break  is  not  absolute,  and  the  investi- 
gation of  the  laws  of  reason  and  in- 
stinct throughout  the  zoological  sys- 
tem, which  is  already  casting  some 
scattered  rays  of  light  on  the  study  of 
miin's  highest  organization,  may  be  j 
destii.ed  henceforth  to  throw  brighter 
illumination  into  its  very  recesses. 
Now  this  condition  of  things,  as  well 
as  the  accepted  order  in  which  the 
sciences  have  arranged  themselves  by 
*  their  mode  of  growth,  make  it  desir- 
able that  anthropology  should  not  too 
ambitiously  strive  to  include  within 
itself  the  sciences  which  provide  so 
much  of  its  wealth,  but  that  each 
science  should  pursue  its  own  sub- 
ject through  the  whole  range  of  living 
beings,  rendering  to  anthropology  an 
account  of  so  much  of  its  results  as 
concerns  man.  Such  results  it  is  the 
office  of  anthropology  to  collect  and 
co-ordinate,  so  as  to  elaborate  as 
completely  as  may  be  the  synopsis  of 
man's  bodily  and  mental  nature,  and 
the  theory  of  his  whole  course  of  life 
and  action  from  his  first  appearance 
on  earth.  As  will  be  seen  from  the 
following  summary,  the  information  to 
be  thus  brought  together  from  con- 
tributing sciences  is  widely  different 
both  in  accuracy  and  in  soundnei;s. 
While  much  of  the  descriptive  detail 
is  already  clear  and  well  filled  in,  the 
general  principles  6f  its  order  are  still 
but  vaguely  to  be  discerned,  and  as 
our  view  quits  the  comparatively  dis- 
tinct region  near  ourselves,  the  pros- 
pect fades  more  and  more  into  the 
dimness  of  conjecture.    - 


II.  MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE. 

It  is  now  more  than  thirty  years 
since  Dr.  Prichard,  who  perhaps  of 
all  others  merits  the  .title  of  founder 
of  modern  anthropology,  stated  in  the 
following  forcible  passage,  which 
opens  his  Natural  History  of  Man, 
the  closeness  of  man's  physical  rela- 
tion to  the  lower  animals :— ■ 


"The  organizsd  world  presents  no  con- 
Masts  and  reseml)lanccs  more  remarkahle 
ihan  thcjse  which  we  discover  on  ci>in|)aring 
mankintl  with  the  inferior  tribes.  'I'hat  crea- 
tures should  exist  so  nearly  approaching  to 
each  other  in  all  the  particulars  of  their  phys- 
ical structure,  and  yet  differing  so  immeasur- 
ably in  their  endowments  and  capabilities, 
would  be  a  fact  hard  to  believe,  if 't  were  not 
manifest  to  our  observati-in.  The  differ- 
ences are  everywhere  strikii'g  :  the  resem- 
blances are  less  obvious  in  the  fullness  of  tlieir 
extent,  and  th'^y  are  never  contemplated 
without  wonder  by  those  who,  in  the  study 
of  anatomy  and  physiology,  are  first  made 
aware  ho,v  near  is  man  in  his  jihysical  con- 
stitution lo  the  brutes.  In  all  the  princi])les 
of  his  internal  structure,  in  the  com|)03ition 
and  functions  of  his  j^arts,  man  is  but  an  an- 
imal. The  lord  of  the  earth,  who  contem- 
plates the  eternal  order  of  tho  universe,  and 
aspires  to  conuiiunion  with  its  invisible 
Maker,  is  a  being  composed  of  t.ie  same  ma-  i 
terials,  and  framed  on  the  same  principles,  as 
the  creatures  which  he  has  tamed  to  be  the 
servile  instruments  of  his  will,  or  slays  for 
his  daily  food.  The  points  of  resemblance 
are  innumerable ;  they  extend  to  the  most 
recondite  arrangements  of  that  mechanism 
which  maintains  instrumentally  the  physical 
life  of  the  body,  which  brings  forward  its  . 
early  development  and  admits,  after  a  given 
period,  its  decay,  and  bv  means  of  which  is 
prepared  a  succession  o\  similar  beings  des- 
tined to  perpetuate  the  race." 

It  is  admitted  that  the  higher  apes 
come  nearest  to  man  in  bodily  forma- 
tion, and  that  it  is  essential  to  deter- 
mine their  zoological  resemblances 
and  differences  as  a  step  toward  as-  * 
certaining  their  absolute  relation  in 
nature.  "At  this  point,"  writes  Pro- 
fessor Owen  in  a  paper  on  the  "  Oste- 
ology of  the  Apes,"  "  every  deviation 
from  the  human  structure  indicates 
with  precision  its  real  peculiarities, 
and  we  then  possess  the  true  means 
of  appreciating  those  modifications 
by  which  a  material  organism  is  es-  \ 
peciaily  adapted  to  become  the  seat  ! 
and  instrument  of  a  rational  and  re- 
sponsible soul."  (On  the  "  Osteology 
of  the  Chimpanzee  and  Orang  Utan," ,  . 
in  Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  vol.  i.)  Professor 
Huxley,  in  his  Man's  Place  in  Nature, 
comparing  man  with  order  after  order 
of  the  mammalia,  decides  "There 
would  remain  then  but  one  order  for 
comparison,  that- of  the  Apes  (using 
that  word  in  its  broadest  sense),  and 
the  question  for  discussion  would  nar- 


r 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


» 


row  Itself  to  this — is  Man  so  different 
from  any  of  these  Apes  that  he  must 
form  an  order  by  himself  ?     Or  does 
he  differ  less   from  them   than   they 
differ  from  one    another,  and  hence 
must  take  his  place  in  the  same  order 
with  them?"     This   anatomist  states 
the  anatomical  relations  between  man 
and  ape  in  untechnical    terms  suited 
to   the   present   purpose,    and   which 
would  be  in  great  measure   accepted 
by    zoologists     and    anthropologists, 
whether  agreeing  or  not  with  his  ulte- 
rior views.     The  relations    are   most 
readily  stated  in  comparison  with  the 
gorilla,   as   on   the   whole    the    most 
anthropomorphous  ape.     In  the  gen- 
eral   proportions   of    the    body    and 
limbs   there  is  a   marked    difference 
between  the  gorilla  and   man,  which 
at  once  strikes  the  eye.     The  gorilla's 
brain-case  is  smaller,  its  trunk  larger, 
its  lower  limbs  sliorter,  its  upper  limbs 
longer   in   proportion   than   those   of 
man.      The    differences    between    a 
gorilla's  skull  and  a  man's  are  truly 
immense.     In   the   gorilla,    the   face, 
formed  largely  by  the  massive    jaw- 
bones, predominates  over  the  brain- 
case  or  cranium ;  in  the   man  these 
proportions  are  reversed.     In  man  the 
occipital  foramen,  through  which  pass- 
es the  spinal  cord,  is  placed  just  be- 
hind the  center  of   the  base    of  the 
skull,  which  is  thus  evenly  balanced 
in  the  erect  posture,  whereas  the  go- 
rilla,  which  goes    habitually   on    all 
fours,  and  whose  skull  is  inclined  for- 
ward, in  accordance  with  this  posture 
has   the   foramen  further   back.      In 
man  the  surface  of  the  skull  is  com- 
paratively   smooth,    and    the     brow- 
ridges  project  but  little,  while  in  the 
gorilla    these    ridges     overhang    the 
cavernous  orbits  like  penthouse  roofs. 
The  absolute  capacity  of  the  cranium 
of  the  gorilla  is  far  less  than  that  of 
.  m?n;  the  smallest  adult  human  cranium 
hardly  measuring  less  than  63  cubic 
inches,  while  the   largest  gorilla  cra- 
nium measured  had  a  content  of  only 
$4.%  cubic  inches.     The  large  propor- 
'  tional  size  of  the  facial  bones,  and  the 
great  projection  of  the  jaws,  confer  on 
the  gorilla's  skull  its  small  facial  angle 


and  brutal  character,  while  its  teeth 
differ  from  man's  in  relative  size  and 
number  of    fangs.      Comparing    the 
lengths  of  the  extremities,  it  is  seen 
that  the  gorilla's  arm  is  of  enormous 
j  length,  in  fact  about  one-sixth  longer 
than  the  spine,  whereas  a  man's  arm 
'  is   one-fifth   shorter  than  the   spine  ; 
both  hand  and  foot  are  proportionally 
much   longer   in  ti^  gorilla  tl  an   in 
man  ;  the  leg  does  not  so  much  differ, 
1  The  vertebral  column  of  the  gorillsi 
j  differs  from  that  of  man  in  its  curva- 
,  ture   and   other  characters,    as    also 
:  does  the  conformation  of  its  narrow 
pelvis.    The  hand  of  the  gorilla  cor- 
[responds  esseniially  as  to  bones  and 
muscles  with  that  of  man,  but  is  clum- 
sier and  heavier ;  its  thumb  is  "  op- 
!  posable  "  like  a  human  thumb,  that  is, 
I  it  can  easily  meet  with  its  extremity 
I  the  extremities  of  the  other  fingers, 
I  thus    possessing    a   character   which 
I  does  much  to  make  the  human  hand 
so  admirable  an  instrument ;  but  the 
gorilla's     thumb    is     proportionately 
shorter  than  man's.     The  foot  of  the 
higher  apes,  though   often   spoken  of 
as  a  hand,  is  anatomically  not  such, 
but  a  prehensile  foot.     It  is  argued 
by  Professor  Owen  and  others  that 
the  position  of  the  great  toe  converts 
the  foot  of  the   higher   apes   into  a 
hand,  an  extremely  important  distinc- 
tion from  man  ;  but  against  this  Pro- 
fessor Huxley  maintains  that  it  has 
the  characteristic  structure  of  a  foot, 
with  a  very  movable  great  toe.     The 
external  unlikeness  of  the  apes  to  man 
depends  much  on  their  hairiness,  but 
this   and   some   other  characteristics 
have  no  great  zoological  value.     No 
doubt   the    difference   between    man 
and  the  apes  depends,  of  all  things,  on 
the  relative  size  and  organization  of 
the  brain.     While  similar  as  to  their 
general   arrangement   to   the   human 
brain,  those  of  the  higher  apes,  such 
as    th'"    chimpanzee,    are   much   less 
complex  in  their  convolutions,  as  well 
as  much  less  both  in  absolute  and  rel- 
ative weight— rthe  weight  of  a  gorilla's 
brain   hardly  exceeding    20    ounces 
and  a  man's  brain  hardly  weighing 
less  than  32  ounces,  although  the  go- 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


rilla  is  considerably  the  larger  animal 
of  the  two. 

These  anatomical  distinctions  are 
undoubtedly  of  great  moment,  and  it 
is  an  interesting  question  whether 
they  suffice  to  place  man  in  a  zoolog- 
ical order  by  himself.  It  is  plain  that 
some  eminent  zoologists,  regarding 
man  as  absolutely  differing  as  to  mind 
and  spirit  from  any  other  animal,  have 
had  their  discrimination  of  mere  bod- 
ily differences  unconsciously  sharp- 
ened, and  have  been  led  to  give  dif- 
ferences, such  as  in  the  brain  or  even 
the  foot  of  the  apes  and  man,  some- 
what more  importance  than  if  they 
had  merely  distinguished  two  species 
of  apes.  Among  the  present  genera- 
tion of  rtaturalists,  however,  there  is 
an  evident  tendency  to  fall  in  with  the 
opinion,  that  the  anatomical  differ- 
ences which  separate  the  gorilla  or 
chimpanzee  from  man  are  in  some  re- 
spects less  than  those  which  separate 
these  man-like  apes  from  apes  lower 
in  the  scale.  Yet  naturalists  agree  to 
class  both  the  hi_gher  and  lower  apes 
in  the  same  order.  This  is  Professor 
Huxley's  argument,  some  prominenc 
points  of  which  a'-e  the  following  :■ — 
As  regards  the  proportion  of  limbs, 
the  hylobates  or  gibbon  is  as  much 
longer  in  the  arms  than  the  gorilla  as 
the  gorilla  is  than  the  man,  while  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  as  much  longer 
in  the  legs  than  the  man  as  the  man 
is  than  the  gorilla.  As  to  the  verte- 
bral column  and  pelvis,  the  lower 
apes  differ  from  the  gorilla  a'^  much 
as  or  more  than,  it  differs  from  man. 
As  to  the  capacity  of  the  cranium, 
men  differ  from  one  another  so  ex- 
tremely that  the  largest  known  human 
skull  holds  nearly  twice  the  measure 
of  the  smallest,  a  larger  proportion 
than  that  in  which  man  surpasses  the 
gorilla ;  while,  with  proper  allowance 
for  difference  of  size  of  the  various 
species,  it  appears  that  some  of  the 
lower  apes  fall  nearly  as  much  below 
the  higher  apes.  The  projection  of 
the  muzzle,  which  gives  the  character 
of  brutality  to  the  gorilla  as  distin- 
guished from  the  man,  is  yet  further 
exaggerated  in  the  lemurs,  as  is  also 


the  backward  position  of  the  occipital 
foramen.  In  characters  of  such  im- 
portance as  the  structure  of  the  hand 
and  foot,  the  lower  apes  diverge  ex- 
tremely from  the  gorilla ;  thus  the 
thumb  ceases  to  be  opposable  in  the 
American  monkeys,  and  in  the  mar- 
mosets is  directed  forward,  and 
armed  with  a  curved  claw  like  the 
other  digits,  the  great  toe  in  these 
latter  being  insignificant  in  propor- 
tion. The  same  argument  can  be  ex- 
tended to  other  points  of  anatomical 
structure,  and,  what  is  of  more  conse-^ 
quence,  it  appears  true  of  the  brain. 
A  series  of  the  apes,  arranged  from 
lower  to  higher  orders,  shows  grada- 
tions from  a  brain  little  higher  than 
that  of  a  rat,  to  a  brain  like  a  small 
and  imperfect  imitation  of  a  man's; 
and  the  greatest  structural  break  in 
the  series  lies  not  between  man  and 
the  man-like  apes,  but  between  the 
apes  and  monkeys  on  one  side,  and 
the  lemurs  on  the  other.  On  these 
grounds  Professor  Huxley,  restoring 
in  principle  the  Linnean  classification, 
desires  to  include  man  in  the  order  of 
Primates.  This  order  he  divides  into 
seven  families :  first,  the  Anthropini, 
consisting  of  man  only ;  second,  the 
Catarhini,  or  Old  World  apes ;  third, 
the  Flatyrhini,  all  New  World  apes, 
cxcej)t  the  marmosets ;  forth,  the 
Arctopithecini,  or  marmosets ;  fifth, 
the  Lemurini,  or  lemurs  ;  sixth  and 
seventh,  the  Cheiromyini  and  Galeo- 
pithecini.  It  seems  likely  that,  so  far 
as  naturalists  are  disposed  to  class 
man  with  other  animals  on  purely 
zoological  grounds,  some  such  class- 
ification as  this  may,  in  the  present 
state  of  comparative  anatomy,  be  gen- 
erally adopted. 

It  is  in  assigning  to  man  his  place 
in  nature  on  psychological  grounds 
that  the  greater  difficulty  comes  into 
view.  The  same  naturalist,  whose 
argument  has  jusc  been  summarized 
against  an  absolute  structural  line  of 
demarkation  between  man  and  the 
creatures  next  in  the  scale,  readily 
acknowledges  an  immeasurable  and 
practically  infinite  divergence,  ending 
in  the  present  enormous  gulf  between 


!  occipital 
such  im- 
the  hand 
verge  ex- 
thus  the 
le  in  the 
the  mar- 
ird,     and 
like  the 
in   these 
n  propor- 
an  be  ex- 
natomical 
>re  conse-^ 
he  brain, 
^ed  from 
ivs  grada- 
jher  than 
e  a  small 
a  man's; 
break   in 
man  and 
ween   the 
side-,  and 
On  these 
restoring 
sification, 
;  order  of 
[ides  into 
'ithropiniy 
cond,  the 
s ;  third, 
rid  apes, 
•rth,    the 
s ;     fifth, 
ixth   and 
d   Galeo- 
it,  so  far 
to   class 
1   purely 
:h  class- 
present 
,  be  gen- 

lis  place 
grounds 
nes  into 
whose 
marized 

line  of 
and    the 

readily 
ble  and 
,  ending 
between 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


the  family  of  apes  and  the  family  of 
man.  To  account  for  this  intellectual 
chasm  as  possibly  due  to  some  minor 
structural  difference,  is,  however,  a 
view  strongly  opposed  to  the  prevail- 
ing judgment.  The  opinion  is  deeply 
rooted  in  modern  as  in  ancient 
thought,  that  only  a  distinctively  hu- 
man element  of  the  highest  import 
can  account  for  the  severance  between 
man  and  the  highest  animal  below 
him.  Differences  in  the  mechanical 
organs,  such  as  the  perfection  of  the 
human  hand  as  an  instrument,  or  the 
adaptability  of  the  human  voice  to  the 
expression  of  human  thought,  are  in- 
deed of  great  value.  But  they  have 
not  of  themselves  such  value,  that  to 
endow  an  ape  with  the  hand  and 
vocal  organs  of  a  man  would  be  likely 
to  raise  it  through  any  large  part  of 
the  interval  that  now  separates  it  from 
humanity.  Much  more  is  to  be  said 
for  the  view  that  man's  larger  and 
more  highly  organized  brain  accounts 
for  those  mental  powers  in  which  he 
so  absolutely  surpasses  the  brutes. 

The  distinction  do  :s  not  seem  to 
lie  principally  in  the  range  and  deli- 
cacy of  direct  sensation,  as  may  be 
judged  from  such  well-known  facts  as 
man's  inferiority  to  the  eagle  in  sight, 
or  to  the  dog  in  scent.  At  the  same 
time,  it  seems  that  the  human  sensory 
organs  may  have  in  various  respects 
acuteness  beyond  those  of  other  crea- 
tures. But,  beyond  a  doubt,  man 
possesses,  and  in  some  way  possesses 
by  virtue  of  his  superior  brain,  a 
power  of  co-ordinating  the  impressions 
of  his  senses,  which  enables  him  to 
understand  the  world  he  lives  in,  and 
by  understanding  to  use,  resist,  and 
even  in  a  measure  rule  it.  No  human 
art  shows  the  nature  of  this;  human 
attribute  mpre  clearly  than  does  lan- 
guage. Man  shares  with  the  mamma- 
lia and  birds  the  direct  expression  of 
the  feelings  by  emotional  tones  and 
interjectional  cries;  the  parrot's 
power  of  articulate  utterance  almost 
equals  his  own ;  and,  by  association 
of  ideas  in  some  measure,  some  of  the 
lower  animals  have  even  learnt  to 
recognize  words  he   utters.     But,  to 


use  words  in  themselves  unmeaning, 
as  symbols  by  which  to  conduct  and 
convey  the  complex  intellectual  proc- 
esst  s  in  which  mental  conceptions 
are  suggested,  compared,  combined, 
and  even  analyzed,  and  new  oneo  cre- 
ated— this  is  a  faculty  which  is 
scarcely  to  be  traced  in  any  lower 
animal.  The  view  that  this,  with 
other  mental  processes,  is  a  function 
of  the  brain,  is  remarkably  corrobo- 
rated by  modern  investigation  of  the 
disease  of  aphasia,  where  the  power 
of  thinking  remains,  but  the  power  is 
lost  of  recalling  the  word  correspond* 
ing  to  the  thought,  and  this  mental 
defect  is  found  to  accompany  a  dis- 
eased state  of  a  particular  locality  of 
the  brain.*  This  may  stand  among 
the  most  perfect  of  the  many  evidences 
that,  in  Professor  Bain's  words,  "the 
brain  is  the  principal,  though  not  the 
sole  organ  of  mind."  As  the  brains 
of  vertebrate  animals  form  an  ascend- 
ing scale,  more  and  more  approaching 
man's  in  their  arrangement,  the  fact 
here  finds  its  explanation,  that  lower 
animals  perform  mental  processes  cor- 
responding in  their  nature  to  our  own, 
though  of  generally  lass  power  and 
complexity.  The  full  evidence  of 
this  correspondence  will  be  found  in 
such  works  as  Brehm's  Thierleben; 
and  some  of  the  salient  points  are  set 
forth  by  Mr.  Darwin,  in  the  chapter 
on  "  Mental  Powers,"  in  his  Descent 
of  Man.  Such  are  the  similar  effects 
of  terror  on  man  and  the  lower  ani- 
mals, causing  the  muscles  to  tremble, 
the  heart  to  palpitate,  the  sphincters 
to  be  relaxed,  ?» d  the  hair  to  stand 
on  end.  The  phenomena  of  memory, 
both  as  to  persons  and  places,  is 
strong  in  animals,  as  is  manifest  by 
their  recognition  of  their  masters,  and 
their  returning  at  once  to  habits  dis- 
used for  many  years,  but  of  which 
their  brain  has  not  lost  the  stored-up 
impressions.  Such  facts  as  that  dogs 
"  hunt  in  dreams,"  make  it  likely  that 
their  minds  are  not  only  sensible  to 
actual  events,  present  and  past,  but 


«  See  "  Diseases  of  Memory,"  by  Th. 
bot,  No.  46  Humboldt  Library. 


Rt. 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


can,  like  our  minds,  combine  revived 
sensations  into  ideal  scenes  in  which 
they  are  actors, — that  is  to  say,  they 
have  the  faculty  of  imagination.  As 
for  the  reasoning  powers  in  animals, 
the  accounts  of  monkeys  learning  by 
experience  to  break  eggs  carefully, 
and  pick  oflf  bits  of  shell,  so  as  not  to 
lose  the  contents,  or  of  the  way  in 
which  rats  or  martens  after  awhile 
can  no  longer  be  caught  by  the  same 
kind  of  trap,  with  innumerable  similar 
facts  show  in  the  plainest  way  that 
the  reason  of  animals  goes  so  far  as 
to  form  by  new  experience  a  new  hy- 
pothesis of  cause  and  effect  which  will 
Henceforth  guide  their  actions.  The 
^employment  of  mechanical  instru- 
mentSt  of  whii  h  instances  of  monkeys 
using  sticks  and  stones,  and  some 
other  similar  cases,  furnish  the  only 
rudimentary  traces  mong  the  lower 
animals,  is  one  of  the  often  quoted 
distinctive  powers  of  man.  With  this 
.comes  the  whole  vast  and  ever-widen- 
ing range  of  inventive  and  adaptive 
art,  where  the  uniform  hereditary 
instinct  of  the  cell-forming  bee  and 
the  nest-building  bird  are  supplanted 
by  multiform  processes  and  construc- 
tions, often  at  first  rude  and  clumsy 
in  comparison  to  those  of  the  lower 
instinct,  but  carried  on  by  the  faculty 
of  improvement  and  new  invention 
into  ever  higher  stages.  **  From  the 
moment,"  writes  Mr.  Wallace  {Nat- 
ural Selection,  p.  325),  "when  the  first 
skin  was  used  as  a  covering,  when  the 
first  rude  spear  was  formed  to  assist 
in  the  chase,  when  fire  was  first  used 
to  cook  his  food,  when  the  first-^  seed 
was  sown  xix  shoot  planted,  a  grand 
revolution  was  effected  in  nature,  a 
revolution  which  in  all  the  previous 
ages  of  the  earth's  history  had  had  no' 
parallel ;  for  a  being  had  arisen  who 
was  no  longer  necessarily  subject  to 
change  with  the  changing  universe, — 
a  being  who  was  in  some  degree 
superior  to  nature,  inasmuch  as  he 
knew  how  to  control  and  regulate  her 
action,  and  could  keep  himself  in  har> 
mony  with  her,  not  by  a  change  in 
body,  but  by  an  advance  of  mind." 
As  to  tlie  lower  instincts  wtitlliig 


dit-'ctly  to  self-preservation,  It  Is  ao 
ivnowledged  on  all  hands  that  man 
has  them  in  a  less  developed  state 
than  other  animals  ;  in  fact,  the  nat- 
ural defenselessness  of  the  human 
being,  and  the  long-continued  care 
and  teaching  of  the  young  by  the 
elders,  are  among  the  commonest 
themes  of  moral  discourse.  Parental 
tenderness  and  care  for  the  young  are 
strongly  marked  among  the  lower 
animals,  though  so  inferior  in  scope 
and  duration  to  the  human  qualities ; 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  mu- 
tual forbearance  and  defense  which 
bind  logether  in  a  rudimentary  social 
bond  the  families  and  herds  of  an- 
in-als.  Philosophy  seeking  knowl- 
edge for  its  own  sake ;  morality, 
manifested  in  the  sense  of  trufh,  right, 
and  V  rtue  ;  and  religion,  the  belief  in 
and  communion  with  superhuman 
powers  ruling  and  pervading  the  uni- 
verse, are  human  characters,  of  which 
it  is  instructive  to  trace,  if  possible, 
the  earliest  symptoms  in  the  lower 
animals,  but  which  can  there  show  at 
most  only  faint  and  rudimentary  signs 
of  their  wondrous  development  in 
mankind.  That  the  tracing  of  physi- 
cal and  even  intellectual  continuity 
between  the  lower  animals  and  our 
own  race,  does  not  necessarily  lead 
the  anthropologist  to  lower  the  rank 
of  man  in  the  scale  of  nature,  cannot 
be  better  shown  than  by  citing  one  of 
the  authors  of  the  development  theory, 
Mr.  A.  R.  Wallace  {op.  cit.,  p.  324). 
Man,  he  considers,  is  to  be  placed 
"  apart,  as  not  only  the  head  and  cul- 
minating point  of  tJie  grand  series  of 
organic  nature,  but  as  fn  some  degree 
a  new  and  distinct  order  of  being." 

To  regard  the  intellectual  functions 
of  the  brain  and  nervous  system  as 
alone  to  be  considered  in  the  psycho- 
logical comparison  of  man  with  the 
lower  animals,  is  a  view  satisfactory 
to  those  thinkers  who  hold  material- 
istic views.  According  to  tliis  school, 
man  is  a  machine,  no  doubt  the  most 
complex  and  wonderfully  adapted  of 
all  known  machines,  but  still  neither 
more  nor '  less  than  an  instrument 
^hose  energy  is  provided  by  force 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


n,  It  Is  ao 
i  that  man 
oped  state 
t,  the  nat- 
he  human 
nued  care 
ig  by  the 
commonest 

Parental 
:  young  are 
the  lower 
r  in  scope 

qualities; 
oi  the  mu- 
nse  which 
tary  social 
rds  of  an- 
ng    knowl- 

morality, 
rurh,  right, 
le  belief  in 
iperhuman 
g  the  uni- 
3,  of  which 
f  possible, 
the  lower 
e  show  at 
1  tary  signs 
pment  in 
;  of  physi- 
continuity 
i  and  our 
larily  lead 
•  the  rank 
re,  cannot 
ing  one  of 
int  theory, 

.  P-  324). 
be  placed 
i  and  cul- 
I  series  of 
Tie  degree 
being." 

functions 
system  as 
e  psycho- 

with  the 
itisfactory 

material- 
iis  school, 

the  most 
dapted  of 
U.  neither 
istrument 

by  force 


/ 


from  without,  and  which,  when  set  in 
action,  performs  the  various  opera- 
tions for  which  its  structure  fits  it, 
namely,  to  live,  move,  feel,  and  think. 
This  doctrine,  which  may  be  followed 
up  from  Descartes's  theory  of  animal 
life  into  the  systems  of  modern  writers 
of  the  school  of  Moleschott  and  Biich- 
ner,  underlies  the  Lectures  on  Man  of 
Professor  Carl  Vogt,  one  of  the  ablest 
of  modern  anthropologists  (English 
translation  published  by  Anthropo- 
logical Society,  London,  1864).  Such 
views,  however,  always  have  been  and 
are  strongly  opposed  by  those  who 
accept  on  theological  grounds  a 
spiritualistic  doctrine,  or  what  is,  per- 
haps, more  usual,  a  theory  which 
combines  spiritualism  and  materialism 
in  the  doctrine  of  a  composite  nature 
in  man,  animal  as  to  the  body  and  in 
some  measure  as  to  the  mind,  spiritual 
as  to  the  soul.  It  may  be  useful,  as 
an  illustration  of  one  opinion  on  this 
subject,  to  continue  here  from  an 
earlier  page  the  citation  of  Dr.  Prich- 
ard's  comparison  between  man  and 
the  lower  animals  :— 

"  If  it  be  inquired  in  what  the  still  more 
remarkable  difference  consists,  it  is  by  no 
means  easy  to  reply.  .By  some  it  will  be  said 
that  man  while  similar  in  the  organization 
of  his  body  to  the  lower  tribes,  is  distin- 
guished from  them  by  the  possession  of  an 
immaterial  soul,  a  prmciple  capable  of  con- 
scious feeling,  of  intellect  and  thought.  To 
many  persons  it  will  appear  paradoxical  to 
ascribe  the  endowment  of  a  soul  to  the  in 
ferior  tribes  in  the  creation,  yet  it  is  difficult 
to  discover  a  valid  argument  that  limits  the 
possession  of  an  immaterial  principle  to  man. 
The  phenomena  of  feeling,  of  desire  and 
aversion,  of  love  and  -hatred,  of  fear  and 
revenge,  and  the  perception  of  external  rela- 
tions manifested  in  the  life  of  brutes,  imply, 
not  only  through  the  analogy  which  they 
display  to  the  human  faculties,  but  likewise 
from  all  that  we  can  learn  or  conjecture  of 
their  particular  nature,  the  superadded  exist- 
ence of  a  principle  distinct  from  the  mere 
mechanism  of  material  bodies.  That  such  a 
principle  must  exist  in  all  beings  capable  of 
sensation,  or  of  anything  analogous  to  hu- 
man passions  and  feelings,  will  hardly  be 
denied  by  those  who  perceive  the  force  of 
arguments  which  metaphysically  demonstrate 
the  immaterial  nature  of  thf;  mind.  There 
may  be  no  rational  grounds  for  the  ancient 
dogma  that  the  souls  of  the  lower  animals 
were  imperishable,  like  the  soul  of  man ;  this 
is,  however,  a  problem  which  we  are  not 


called  upon  to  discu&s;  and  we  ma^  venture 
to  conjecture  that  there  may  ht  immaterial 
essences  of  divers  kinds,  and  endowed  with 
various  attributes  and  capabilities.  Hut  the 
real  nature  of  these  unseen  principles  eludes 
oui  research  :  they  are  only  known  to  us  by 
their  external  manii'estations.  T'ese  mani- 
festations are  the  various  powers  and  capa- 
bilities, or  rather  the  habitudes  of  action, 
which  characterize  the  different  orders  of 
beinp,  diversified  according  to  their  several 
destinations." 

Dr.  Prichard  here  puts  forward 
distinctly  the  time-honored  doctrine 
which  refers  the  mental  faculties  to 
the  operation  of  the  soul.  The  view 
maintained  by  a  distinguished  com- 
parative anaiOTiist,  Professor  Miv^art, 
in  his  Genesis  of  Species^  ch.  xii.,  may 
fairly  follow.  "  Man,  according  to 
the  old  scholastic  definition,  is  *a 
rational  animal '  {animal  rationale), 
and  his  animality  is  distinct  in  nature 
from  his  rationality,  though  insepara- 
bly jo.ned,  during  life,  in  one  common 
personality.  Man's  animal  body  must 
have  had  a  different  source  from  that 
of  the  spiritual  soul  which  informs  it, 
owing  to  the  distinctness  cf  the  two 
orders  to  which  those  two  exi^itences 
severally  belong."  Not  to  pursue  into 
its  detaiii,  a  doctrine  which  has  its 
place  Kii.ier  in  a  theological  than  an 
anthropological  article,  it  remains  to 
be  remark-^d  that  the  two  extracts 
just  given,  however  significant  in 
themselves,  fail  to  render  an  account 
of  the  view  of  the  human  constitution 
which  would  probably,  among  the 
theological  and  scholastic  leaders  of 
public  opinion,  count  the  largest 
weight  of  adherence.  According  to 
this  view,  not  only  life  but  thought 
are  functions  of  the  animal  system,  in 
which  man  excels  all  other  animals  as 
to  height  of  organization ;  but  beyond 
this,  man  embodies  an  immaterial  and 
immortal  spiritual  principle  which  no 
lower  creature  possesses,  and  which 
makes  the  resemblance  of  the  apes  to 
him  but  a  mocking  simulance.  To 
pronounce  any  absolute  decision  on 
these  conflicting  doctrines  is  foreign  to 
our  present  purpose,  which  is  to  show 
that  all  of  them  count  among  their 
adherents  men  of  high  rank  in  sci- 
ence. 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


III.    ORIGIN  OF  MAN. 

Available  information  on  this  great 
problem  has  been  multiphed  tenfold 
during   the   present  generation,   and 
the  positive  dicta  oC  the  older  author- 
ities are   now  more   and   more  sup- 
planted by  hypotheses  based  on  bio- 
logical evidence.     Opinion  as  to  the 
genesis  of  man  is  divided   between 
the  theories  of  the  two  great  schools 
of  biology,  that  of  creation  and  that 
of  evolution.     In  both  schools  the  an- 
cient doctrine  of  the  contemporaneous 
appearance  on  earth  of  all  species  of 
animals  having  been  abandotied  under 
the  positive  evidence  of  geology,  it  is 
admitted   that  the  animal  kingdom, 
past    and    present,    includes  a  vast 
series    of    successive    forms,    whose 
appearances  and  disappearances  have 
taken  place  at  intervals  during  an  im- 
mense lapse  of  ages.    The  line  of 
inquiry  has  thus  been  directed  to  as- 
certaining   what    formative    relation 
subsists  among  these  species  and  gen- 
era,  the  last  link  of  the   argument 
reaching  to  the  relation  between  man 
and   the   lower         atures    preceding 
him  in  tune.    Oi»   both  the  theories 
here  concerned  it  would  be  admitted, 
in  the  words  of  Agassiz  {Principles  of 
Zoology,  pp.  205-6),  that  "ihere  is  a 
manifest  progress  in  the  succession  of 
beings  on   thf»  surface  of  the  earth. 
This  progress  consists  in  an  increasing 
similarity  of  the   living  fauna,   and, 
among  the  vertebrates  especially,  in 
their  increasing  resemblance  to  man." 
Agassiz  continues,  however,  in  terms 
characteristic     of      the      creationist 
school :  "  But  this  connection  is  not 
the  consequence  of  a  direct  lineage 
between  the  faunas  of  different  ages. 
There  is  nothing  like  parenial  descent 
connecting  them.    The  fishes  of  the 
Palaeozoic  age  are  in  no  respect  the 
ancestors  of  the  reptiles  of  the  Secon- 
dary age,  nor  does  man  descend  from 
the  mammals  which  preceded  him  in 
the  Tertiary  age.    The  link  by  which 
they  are  connectftrf  is  of  a  higher  and 
immaterial  nature ;  and  their  connec- 
tion is  to  be  sought  in  the  view  of  the 
Creator  himself,  whose  aim  in  forming 


the  earth,  in  allowing  it  to  undergo 
the  successive  changes  which  geology 
has  pointed  out,  and  in  creating  suc- 
cessively all  the  di^erent  types  of 
animals  which  have  passed  away,  was 
to  introduce  man  upon  the  surface  of 
our  globe.  Man  is  the  end  toward 
which  r'l  the  animal  creation  has 
tended  from  the  first  appearance  of 
the  first  Palaeozoic  fishes."  The  evo- 
lutionist school,  on  the  contrai/, 
maintains  that  different  successive 
species  of  animals  are  in  fact  con- 
nected by  parental  descent,  having 
become  modified  in  the  course  o£ 
successive  generations.  Mr.  Darwin, 
with  whose  name  and  that  of  Mr. 
Wallace  the  modern  development 
theory  is  especially  associated,  in  the 
preface  to  his  Descent  of  Man  (1S71), 
gives  precedence  among  naturalists  to 
Lamarck,  as  having  long  ago  come  to 
the  conclusion  "that  man  is  the  cO' 
descendant  with  other  species  of  some 
ancient,  lower,  and  extinct  form." 
Professor  Huxley,  remarking  (Man'. 
Place  in  Nature)  on  the  crudeness  ana 
even  absurdity  of  rome  of  Lamarck'a 
views,  dates  from  Darwin  the  scien- 
tific existence  of  the  development 
theory.  The  result  of  Darwin's  appli- 
cation of  this  theory  to  man  may  be 
given  in  his  own  words  (Descent  of 
Man,  part  i.  ch.  6)  : — 

"The  Catarbine  and  Platyrhine  monkeys 
sigree  in  a  n'ultitude  of  characlers,  as  is 
shown  by  their  unqu3stiorjably  belonging  to 
one  and  the  same  Order.  The  many  charac- 
ters which  they  possess  in  common  can 
hardly  have  been  mdepcndently  acquired  by 
so  many  distinct  species  ;  so  that  these  char- 
acters must  have  been  inherited.  But  an 
ancient  form  which  possessed  many  charac- 
ters common  to  the  Catarhine  and  Platyrhins 
monkeys,  and  others  in  an  intermediate  con- 
dition, and  some  few  perhaps  distinct  from 
those  now  present  in  either  group,  would 
undoubtedly  have  been  ranked,  if  seen  by  a 
naturalist,  as  an  ape  or  a  monkey.  And  as 
roan  under  a  genealogical  point  of  view  be- 
longs to  the  Caiarhine  or  Old  Wo'ld  stock, 
we  must  conclude,  however  much  the  conclu- 
sion may  revolt  our  pride,  that  our  early 
progenitors  would  have  been  properly  thu? 
designated.  But  we  must  not  fall  into  the 
error  of  supposing  thai  tfce  early  progenitor 
of  th"  whole  Simian  stock,  including  man, 
was  identical  with,  or  even  ciosely  resem- 
bled, any  existing  ape  or  monkey." 


•T'-.^H"- 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


9 


be 


mns 


clu- 

hU5> 

the 
itor 
an, 
:in- 


The  problem  of  the  origin  of  man 
cannot  be  properly  discussed  apart 
from  the  full  problem  of  the  origin  of 
species.  The  homologies  between, 
man  and  other  animals  which  both 
schools  try  to  account  for ;  the  expla- 
nation of  the  iiitervals,  with  appaiont 
v/ant  of  intermediate  forms,  which 
seem  to  the  creationists  so  absolute  a 
separation  between  species  ;  the  evi- 
dence of  useless  "  rudimentary  or- 
gans," such  as  in  man  the  external 
shell  of  the  ear,  and  the  muscle  which 
enables  some  individuals  to  twitch 
their  ears,  which  mdimeiitary  parts 
the  evolutionists  claim  to  be  only 
explicable  as  relics  of  an  earlfer 
specific  condition, — these,  which  are 
the  main  points  of  the  argument  on 
the  origin  of  man,  belong  to  general 
biology.  The  philosophical  princi- 
ples which  underlie  the  two  theories 
stand  for  the  mo^t  part  in  strong  con- 
trast, the  theory  of  evolution  tending 
toward  th;  supposition  of  ordinary 
causes,  such  as  "  natural  selection," 
producing  modifications  in  species, 
whether  by  gradual  accur  .ulation  or 
more  sudden  leaps,  while  the  theory 
of  creation  is  prone  to  have  recourse 
to  acts  of  supernatural  intervention 
(see  the  Duke  of  Argyll,  JSeign  of  Law, 
ch.  v.).  A  theory  has-  been  pro- 
pounded by  Mr.  Mivart  {Genesis  of 
Species,  187 1)  of  a  natural  evolution 
of  man  as  to  his  body,  combined  with 
a  supernatural  creation  as  to  his  soul ; 
but  this  attempt  to  meet  the  difficul- 
ties on  both  sides  seems  at  present 
not  to  have  satisfied  either.  Anthro- 
pology waits  to  see  whether  the  dis- 
covery of  intermediate  forms,  which 
has  of  late  years  reduced  so  many 
asserted  sptcies  to  mere  varieties, 
will  go  on  till  it  produces  a  disbelief 
in  any  real  jeparatiop  between  neigh- 
boring species,  and  especially  whether 
geology  can  furnish  traces  of  the 
hypothetical  animal,  man's  near  an- 
cestor, but  not  as  yet  man.  In  the 
S resent  istate  of  the  argument  it  may 
ere  suffice  to  have  bnsfi,  in'iicated 
the  positions  held  on  either  side. 
(Among'  other  works  relating  to  the 
development    theory   as    applied    to 


man,  see  Vogt,  Lectures  on  Man; 
Haeckel,  NatUrliche  Schopfungsges- 
chichte,  2d  ed.,  18*/ 1. 


IV.    RACES  OF  MANKIND. 

The  classification  of  mankind  into 
a  number  of  permanent  varieties  or 
races,  rests  on  grounds  which  are 
within  limits  not  only  obvious  but 
definite.  Whether  from  a  popular  or 
a  scientific  point  of  view,  it  would  be 
admitted  that  a  Negro,  a  Chinese, 
and  an  Australian,  belong  to  three 
such  permanent  varieties  of  men,  all 
plainly  distinguishable  from  one  an- 
other and  from  any  European.  More- 
over, such  a  division  takes  for  granted 
the  idea  which  is  involved  in  the  word 
race,  that  each  of  these  varieties  is 
due  to  special  ancestry,  each  race 
thus  representing  an  ancient  breed  or 
stock,  however  tliese  breeds  or  stocks 
may  have  had  theiv  origin.  The 
anthropological  classification  of  man- 
kind is  thus  zoological  in  its  nature, 
like  that  of  the  varieties  or  species  of 
any  other  animal  group,  and  the  char- 
acters on  which  it  is  based  are  in 
great  measure  physical,  though  intel- 
lectual and  traditional  peculiarities, 
such  as  moral  habit  and  language, 
furnish  important  aid.  Among  the 
best-marked  race-characters  are  the 
following: — 

The  color  of  the  skin  has  always 
been  held  as  specially  distinctive. 
The  colored  race-portraits  of  ancient 
Egypt  remain  to  prove  the  perma- 
nence of  complexion  during  a  larse 
of  a  hundred  generations,  distingu.ih- 
ing  coarsely  but  clearly  the  types  of 
the  red-brown  Egyptian,  the  yellow- 
brown  Canaanite,  the  comparatively 
fair  Libyan,  and  the  Negro  (see 
Wilkinson;  Ancient  Eg.;  Brugsch, 
Geogr.  Inschr.  Altdgypt.  Denim.,  vol. 
ii.)  These  broad  distinctions  have 
the  same  kind  of  value  as  the  popu- 
lar terms  describing  white,  yellow, 
brown,  and  black  races,  which  often 
occur  in  ancient  writings,  and  are 
still  use'\     But  for  scientific  purposes 


10 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


greater  accuracy  is  required,  and  this 
is  now  satisfactorily  attained  by  the 
use  of  Dr.  Broca's  graduated  series 
of  colors  as  a  standard  {Mimoires  de 
la  Socidt^  (V Anthropohgie  de  Paris,  ii.). 
By  this  table  the  varieties  of  the 
humart  skin  may  be  followed  from 
the  fairest  hue  of  the  Swede  and  the 
darker  tint  of  the  Provencal,  to  the 
withered-leaf  brown  of  the  Hottentot, 
the  chocolate  brown  of  the  Mexican, 
and  the  brown-black  of  the  West- 
African.  The  color  of  the  eyes  and 
hair  is  also  to  be  defined  accurately 
by  Broca's  table.  This  affords,  liow- 
ever,  less  means  of  distinction,  from 
the  extent  in  which  dark  tints  of  hair 
and  iris  are  common  to  races  whose 
skins  are  more  perceptibly  different ; 
yet  some  varieties  are  characteristic, 
such  as  the  blue  eyes  and  flaxen  hair 
of  the  fair  race  of  Northern  Europe. 

As  to  the  hair,  its  structure  and 
arrangement  is  a  better  indication  of 
race  than  its  tint.  The  hair  differs  .in 
quantity  between  scantiness  on  the 
body  of  the  Mongul  and  profusion  on 
the  body  of  the  Aino ;  while  as  to  the 
arrangement  on  the  scalp,  the  tufts 
of  the  Bushman  contrast  with  the 
more  equal  distribution  on  the  Euro- 
pean head.  The  straight  hair  of  the 
North  American  or  Malay  is  recog- 
niz3ble  at  once  as  different  from  the 
waving  or  curling  I^air  of  the  European 
and  both  'rom  the  naturally  frizzed 
hair  of  the  Negro.  These  marked 
differences  are  due  to  the  structure 
of  the  hair,  which,  examined  in  sec- 
tions under  the  microscope,  varies 
from  the  circular  section  proper  to 
the  straight-haired  races,  to  the  more 
or  less  symmetrically  oval  or  reniform 
sections  belonging  to  races  with  curled 
and  twisted  hair  (see  Pruner-Bey  in 
Mdm,  de  la  Soc.  Anthrop.,  vol.  ii.). 

Stature  is  by  no.  means  a  general 
criterion  of  race,  and  it  would  noi, 
for  inst.nce,  be  difficult  to  choose 
groups  of  Englishmen,  Kafirs,  and 
North  American  Indians,  whose  mean 
height  should  hardly  differ.  Yet  in 
many  cases  it  is  a  valuable  means  of 
distinction,  as  between  the  tall  Pata- 
gonians  and  the  stunted   Fuegians, 


and  even  as  a  help  in  minuter  prob- 
lems, such  as  separating  the  Teutonic 
and  Keltic  ancestry  in  the  population 
of  England  (see  Beddoe,  "  Stature  and 
Bulk  of  Man  in  the  British  Isles,"  in 
Mem.  Anthrop.  Soc.  London,  vol.  iii.). 
Proportions  of  the  limbs,  compared 
in  length  with  the  trunk,  have  been 
claimed  as  constituting  peculiarities 
of  African  and  American  races ;  and 
other  anatomical  points,  such  as  the 
conformation  of  the  pelvis,  have 
speciality.  But  inferences  of  this 
class  have  hardly  attained  to  sufficient 
certainty  and  generality  to  be  set 
down  in  the  form  of  rules. 

The  conformation  of  the  skull  is 
second  only  to  the  color  of  the  skin  as 
a  criterion  for  the  distinction  of  race. 
The  principal  modes  of  estimating 
the  differences  of  skulls  are  the  follow- 
ing : — The  skull  being  seen  from 
above,  the  proportions  of  the  two 
diameters  are  estimated  on  the  princi- 
ple employed  by  Retzius :  taking  the 
longer  diameter  from  front  to  back  as 
loo,  if  the  shorter  or  cross  diameter 
falls  below  80,  the  skull  may  be 
classed  as  long  (dolichocephalic) ; 
while  if  it  exceeds  80,  the  skull  may 
be  classed  as  broad  (brachycephalic) ; 
or  a  third  division  may  be  introduced 
between  these  as  intermediate  (Meso- 
cephalic),  comprehending  skulls  with 
a  proportionate  breadth  of  75  to  80, 
or  thereabout.  The  percentage  of 
breadth  to  length  measured  in  this 
manner  is  known  as  the  cephalic  in- 
dex; thus,  the  cephalic  index  of  a 
Negro  or  Australian  may  be  as  low  as 
72,  and  that  of  a  Tatar  as  high  as  88, 
while  the  majority  of  Europeans  have 
an  index  not  departing  in  either  di- 
rection .very  far  from  78.  The  cepha- 
lic height  is  measured  in  the  same 
way  as  a  percentage  of  the  length. 
The  back  view  (norma  occipitalis)  of 
the  skull  is  distinguished  as  rounded, 
pentagonic,  etc.,  and  the  base  view 
of  the  skull  shows  the  position  of  the 
occipital  foramen  and  the  zygomatic 
arches.  The  position  of  the  jaws  is 
recognized  as  important,  races  being 
described  as  prognathous  when  the 
jaws  project  far,  as  in  the  Australian 


ANTHR0P01.0GY. 


11 


or  Negro,  in  contradistinction  ta  the 
orthognathous  type,  which  is  that  of 
the  ordinary  well-shaped  European 
skull.  On  this  distinction  in  great 
measure  depends  the  celebrated 
'*  facial  angle,"  measured  by  Camper 
as  a  test  of  low  and  high  races ;  but 
this  angle  is  objectionable  as  result- 
ing partly  from  the  development  of 
the  forehead  and  partly  from  the  posi- 
tion of  the  jaws.  The  capacity  of  the 
cranium  is  estimated  in  cubic  meas- 
ure by  filling  it  with  sand,  etc.,  with 
the  general  result  that  the  civilized 
white  man  is  found  to  have  a  larger 
brain  than  the  barbarian  or  savage. 

Classification  of  races  on  cranial 
measurements  has  long  been  attempt- 
ed by  eminent  anatomists,  such  as 
Blumenbach  and  Retziur,  while  the 
later  labors  of  Von  Baer,  Welcker, 
Davis,  Broca,  Busk,  Lucae,  and  many 
others,  have  brought  the  distinctions 
to  extreme  minuteness.  In  certain 
cases  great  reliance  may  be  placed  on 
such  measurements.  Thus  the  skulls 
of  an  Australian  and  a  Negro  would 
be  generally  distinguished  by  their 
narrowness  and  the  projection  of  the 
jaw  from  that  of  any  Englishman  ; 
while,  although  both  the  Australian 
and  Negro  are  thus  dolichocephalic 
and  prognathous,  the  first  would  usu- 
ally differ  perceptibly  from  the  second 
in  its  upright  sides  and  strong  orbital 
ridges.  The  relation  of  height  to 
breadth  may  furnish  a  valuable  test ; 
thus  both  the  Kafir  and  the  Bushman 
are  dolichocephalic,  with  an  index  of 
about  72,  but  they  differ  in  the  index 
of  height,  which  may  be  73  and  71 
respectively,  in  the  one  "ase  more 
than  the  width  and  in  the  other  less. 
It  is,  however,  acknowledged  by  all 
experienced  craniologists,  that  the 
shape  of  the  skull  may  vary  so  much 
within  the  same  tribe,  and  even  the 
same  family,  that  it  must  be  ur ed  with 
extreme  caution,  and  if- possible  only 
in  conjunction  with  other  ciiteria  of 
race. 

The  general  contour  of  the  face,  in 
part  dependent  on  the  form  of  the 
skull,  varies  much  in  different  races, 
among  whom  it  is  loosely  defined  as 


oval,  lozenge-shaped,  pentagonal,  etc. 
Of  particular  features,  some  of  the 
most  marked  contrasts  to  European 
types  are  seen  in  the  oblique  Chinese 
eyes,  the  broad-set  Kamchadal 
cheeks,  the  pomted  Arab  chin,  the 
snub  Kirghis  nose,  the  fleshy  pro- 
tuberant Negro  lips,  and  the  broad 
Kalmuk  ear.  Taken  altogether,  the 
features  have  a  typical  character  which 
popular  observation  seizes  with  some 
degree  of  correctness,  as  in  the  recog- 
nition of  the  Jewish  countenance  in  a 
European  city. 

The  state  of  adaptation  in  which 
each  people  stands  to  its  native  cli- 
mate forms  a  definite  race-character. 
In  its  extreme  form  this  is  instanced 
in  the  harmful  effect  of  the  climate  of 
India  on  children  of  European  par- 
ents, and  the  corresponding  danger 
in  transporting  natives  of  tropical  cli- 
mates to  England.  Typical  instances, 
of  the  trelation  of  race-constitutions 
to  particubr  diseases  are  seen  in  the 
liability  of  Europeans  in  the  West 
Indies  to  yellow  fever,  from  which 
Negroes  are  exempt,  and  in  the  habi- 
tation by  tribes  in  India  of  so-called 
"  unhealthy  districts,"  whose  climate 
is  deadly  to  Europeans,  and  even  to 
natives  of  neighboring  regions.  Even 
the  vermin  infesting  different  races  of 
men  are  classified  by  Mr.  A.  Murray 
{Trans.  jR.  Soc.  Edin.,  vol.  xxii.)  as 
distinct. 

The  physical  capabilities  of  differ- 
ent races  are  known  to  differ  widely, 
but  it  is  not  easy  to  discriminate  here 
between  hereditarj'  race-differences 
and  those  due  to  particular  food  and 
habit  of  life.  A  similar  difficulty  has 
hitherto  stood  in  the  way  of  any  defi- 
nite classificatiun  of  the  emotional, 
moral,  and  intellectual  charav-^ters  of 
races.  Some  of  the  most  confident 
judgments  which  have  been  delivered 
0:\  this  subject  have  been  dictated  by 
prejudice  or  wilful  slander,  as  in  the 
many  lamentable  cases  in  which  slave- 
holders and  conquerors  have  excused 
their  ill-treatment  of  subject  and  in- 
vaded races  on  the  ground  of  their 
being  creatures  of  bestial  nature  in 
mind  and  morals.    Two  of  the  best- 


12 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


marked  contrasts  of  mental  type  re- 
corded among  races  are  Mr.  A.  R. 
Wallace's  distinction  between  the  shy, 
reserved,  and  impassive  Malay  and 
the  sociable  and  demonstrative  Pap- 
uan {Tr.  Eth,  Soc,  vol  iii.  p.  200),  and 
the  very  similar  difference  pointed 
out  by  Spix  and  Martius  between  the 
dull  and  morose  natives  of  the  Brazil- 
ian forests,  and  the  lively  sensuous 
African  Negroes  brought  into  contact 
witH  them  (Reise  in  Brasilien,  vol.  i.) 
In  general,  however,  descriptions  of 
national  or  racial  character  are  so 
vitiated  by  the  confusion  of  peculiarity 
of  natural  character  with  stage  of 
civilization,  that  they  can  only  be 
made  use  of  with  the  greatest  reserve. 

The  1  elation  of  language  to  race  is 
discussed  below.    (Section  VI.) 

Were  the  race-characters  indicated 
in  tlie  foregoing  paragraphs  constant 
in  degree  or  even  in  kind,  the  classifi- 
cation of  races  would  be  an  easy  task. 
In  fact  it  is  not  so,  for  every  division 
of  mankind  presents  in  every  charac- 
ter wide  deviations  from  a  standard. 
Thus  the  Negro  race,  well  marked  as 
it  may  seem  at  the  first  glance,  proves 
on  closer  examination  to  include 
several  shades  of  complexion  and 
features,  in  some  districts  varying  far 
from,  the  accepted  Negro  type  ;  while 
the  examination  of  a  series  of  native 
American  tribes  shows  that,  notwith- 
standing their  asserted  uniformity  of 
type,  they  differ  in  stature,  color, 
features,  and  proportions  of  skull. 
(See  Prichard,  Nat.  Hist,  of  Man; 
Waitz,  Anthropology,  part  i.  sec.  5.). 
Detailed  anthropological  research, 
indeed,  more  and  more  justifies  Blu- 
menbach's  words,  that  "  innumerable 
varieties  of  mankind  run  into  one  an- 
other by  insensible  degrees."  This 
state  of  things,  due  partly  to  mixture 
ftnd  crossing  of  races,  and  partly  to 
independent  variation  of  types,  makes 
the  attempt  to  arrange  the  whole  hu- 
man species  within  exactly  bounded 
divisions  an  apparently  hopeless  task. 
It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  the 
attempt  to  distinguish  special  races 
9hould  be  given  up,  for  there  at  least 
exist  several  definable  types,  each  of 


which  so  far  prevails  in  a  certain  pop. 
ulation  as  to  be  taken  as  its  standard. 
M.  Quetelet's  plan  of  defining  such 
types  will  probably  meet  with  gen- 
eral acceptance  as  the  scientific  method 
proper  to  this  branch  of  anthropology. 
It  consists  in  the  determination  of  the 
standard,  or  typical  "  mean  man " 
(homme  moyeti)  of  a  population,  with 
reference  to  any  particular  quality, 
such  as  stature,  weight,  complexion, 
etc.  In  the  case  of  stature,  this  would 
be  done  by  measuring  a  sufficient 
number  of  men,  and  counting  how 
many  of  them  belong  to  each  height 
on  the  scale.  If  it  be  thus  ascer- 
tained, as  it  might  be  in  an  English 
district,  that  the  5  ft.  7  in.  men  form 
the  most  numerous  group,  while  the 
5  ft.  6  in.  and  5  ft.  8  in.  men  are  less 
in  number,  and  the  5  ft.  5  in.  and  5 
ft.  9  in.  still  fewer,  and  so  on  until  the 
extremely  small  number  of  extremely 
short  or  tall  individuals  of  5  ft.  or  7 
ft.  is  reached,  i;  will  thus  be  ascer- 
tained that  the  stature  of  the  mean  or 
typical  man  is  to  be  taken  as  5  ft. ;  in. 
The  method  is  thus  that  of  selecting 
as  the  standard  the  most  numerous 
group,  on  both  sides  of  which '  the 
groups  decrease  in  number  as  they 
vary  in  type.  Such  classification  may 
show  the  existence  of  two  or  more 
types  in  a  community,  as,  fo  'instance, 
the  population  of  a  Californian  settle- 
ment niiade  up  of  Whites  and  Chinese 
might  show  two  predominant  groups 
(one  of  5  ft.  8  in.,  the  other  of  5  ft. 
4  in.)  corresponding  to  these  two 
racial  types.  It  need  hardly  be  said 
that  this  method  of  determining  the 
mean  type  of  a  race,  as  being  that  of 
its  really  existing  and  most  numerous 
class,  is  altogether  superior  to  the 
mere  calculation  of  an  average,  which 
may  actually  be  represented  by  com- 
paratively few  individuals,  and  those 
the  exceptional  ones.  For  instance, 
the  average  stature  of  the  mixed 
European  and  Chinese  population  just 
referred  to  might  be  5  ft.  6  in. — a 
worthless  and,  indeed,  misleading  re- 
sult. (For  particulars  of  Quetelet's 
method,  see  his  Physique  Sociale,  1869, 
and     AnthroponUtrie,     1870.)     The 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


18 


:h 


measurement  and  description  of  the 
various  races  of  men  are  now  carried 
to  great  minuteness  (the  tables  in 
Scherzer  and  Schwarz,  Reise  der  No- 
vara,  and  those  of  Fritscn,  Die  Einge- 
bormen  Siiti-A/rika's,  1872,  may  be 
cited  as  examples  of  modern  method), 
so  that  race-classification  is  rapidly 
improving  as  to  both  scope  and  accu- 
racy. Even  where  comparatively 
loose  observations  have  been  made, 
it  is  possible,  by  inspection  of  consid- 
erable numbers  of  individuals,  to  de- 
fine the  prevalent  type  of  a  race  with 
tolerable  approximation  to  the  real 
mean  or  standard  man.  It  is  in  this 
way  that  the  subdivision  of  mankind 
into  races,  so  far  as  it  has  been  done 
to  any  purpose,  has  been  carried  out 
by  anthropologists. 

These  classifications  have  been 
numerous,  and  though,  regarded  as 
systems,  most  of  them  are  now  seen 
at  the  first  glance  to  be  unsatisfactory, 
yet  they  have  been  of  great  value  in 
systematizing  knowledge,  and  are  all 
more  or  less  based  on  indisputable 
distinctions.  Blumenbach's  division, 
though  published  nearly  a  century 
ago  (1781),  has  had  the  greatest  influ- 
ence. He  reckons  five  races,  viz., 
Caucasian,  Mongolian,'  Ethiopian, 
American,  Malay  (see  the  collected 
edition  of  his  Treatises,  p.  264,  pub- 
lished by  the  Anthropological  Society). 
The  ill-chosen  name  of  Caucasian, 
used  by  Blumenbach  to  denote  what 
may  be  called  white  men,  is  still 
current ;  it  brings  into  one  rac^  peo- 
ples such  as  the  Arabs  and  Swedes, 
although  these  are  scarcely  less  differ- 
ent than  the  Americans  and  Malays, 
who  are  set  down  as  two  distinct 
races.  Again,  two  of  the  best-marked 
varieties  of  mankind  are  the  Austra- 
lians and  the  Bushmen,  neither  of 
whom,  however,  seem  to  have  a  nat- 
ural place  in  Blumenbach's  series. 
The  yet  simpler  classification  by 
Cuvier  into  Caucasian^  Mongol,  and 
Negro,  corresponds  in  some  measure 
with  a  division  by  mere  complexion 
into  white,  yellow,  and  black  races ; 
but  neither  this  threefold  division,  nor 
the  ancient  classification  into  Semitic, 


Hamitic,  and  Japhetic  nations  can  be 
regarded  as  separating  the  human 
types  either  justly  or  sufficiently  (see 
Prichard,  Natural  History  of  Many 
sec.  15  ;  Waitz,  Anthropology,  vol.  i. 
part  i.  sec.  5).  Schemes  which  set 
up  a  larger  number  of  distinct  races, 
such  as  the  eleven  of  Pickering,  the 
fifteen  of  Bory  de  St.  Vincent,  and  the 
sixteen  of  Desmoulins,  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  finding  niches  for  most 
well-defined  human  varieties  ;  but  no 
modern  naturalist  would  be  likely  to 
adopt  any  one  of  these  as  it  stands. 
In  criticism  of  Pickering's  system,  it 
is  sufficient  to  point  out  that  he  di- 
vides the  white  nations  into  two  races, 
entitled  the  Arab  and  the  Abyssinian 
(Pickering,  Races  of  Man,  chap.  1.) 
Agassiz,  Nott,  Crawfurd,  and  others 
who  have  ass^mied  a  much  larger  num- 
ber of  races  or  species  of  man,  are 
not  considered  to  have  satisfactorily 
defined  a  corresponding  number  of 
distinguishable  types.  On  the  whole. 
Professor  Huxley's  recent  scheme 
{Journal  of  the  Ethnological  Society, 
vol.  ii.  p.  404,  1870)  probably  ap- 
proaches more  nearly  than  any  other 
to  such  a  tentative  classification  as 
may  be  accepted  in  definition  of  the 
principal  varieties  of  mankind,  regard- 
ed from  a  zoological  point  of  view, 
though  anthropologists  may  be  dis- 
posed to  erect  into  separate  races 
several  of  his  widely-differing  sub- 
races.  He  distinguishes  four  princi- 
pal types  of  mankind,  the  Australioid, 
Negroid,  Mongoloid,  and  Xantho- 
chroic,  adding  a  fifth  variety,  the 
Melanochroic. 

The  special  points  of  the  Austra- 
lioid are  a  chocolate-brown  skin,  dark 
brown  or  black  eyes,  black  hair  (usu- 
ally wavy),  narrow  (dolichocephalic) 
skull,  brow-ridges  strongly  developed, 
projecting  jaw,  coarse  lips,  and  broad 
nose.  This  type  is  best  represented 
by  the  natives  of  Australia,  and  next 
to  them,  by  the  indigenous  tribes  of 
Southern  India,  the  so-called  coolies» 
The  Egyptians  to  some  degree  ap- 
proach this  type;  they  are,  however, 
held  by  |;ood  authorities  to  be  a  mod> 
ified  African  race. 


14 


ANTHROPOLOGY'. 


The  Negroid  type  is  primarily  rep- 
resented by  the  Negro  of  Africa,  be- 
tween the  Sahara  and  the  Cape  dis- 
trict, including  Madagascar.  The  skin 
varies  from  dark  brown  to  brown- 
black,  with  eyes  of  similar  dark  hue, 
and  hair  usually  black,  and  always 
crisp  or  woolly.  The  skull  is  narrow 
Cdolichocephalic),  with  orbital  ridges 
not  prominent,  prognathous,  with  de- 
pressed nasal  bones.  Causing  the  nose 
to  be  flat  as  well  as  broad ;  and  the 
lips  are  coarse  and  projecting.  Two 
important  families  are  classed  in  this 
system  as  special  modifications  of  the 
Negroid  type.  First,  the  Bushman  of 
South  Africa  is  diminutive  in  stature, 
and  of  yellowish-brown  complexion  ; 
the  Hottentot  is  supposed  to  be  the 
result  of  crossing  between  the  Bush- 
man and  ordinary  Negroid.  Sec- 
ond, the  Negritos  of  the  Andaman 
Islands,  the  peninsula  of  Malacca, 
the  Philippines  and  other  islands, 
to  New  Caledonia  and  Tasmania, 
arc  mostly  dolichocephalic,  with  dark 
skins  and  woolly  hair.  In  various 
districts  they  tend  toward  other 
types,  and  show  traces  of  mixture. 

The  Mongoloid  type  prevails  over 
the  vast  arei  lying  east  of  a  lins 
drawn  from  Lapland  to  Siam.  Its 
definition  includes  a  short,  squat  build, 
a  yellowish  brown  complexion,  with 
black  eyes  and  black  straight  hair,  a 
broad  (brachycephalic)  skull,  usually 
without  prominent  brow-ridges,  flat 
small  nose,  and  oblique  eyes.  The 
dolichocephalic  Chinese  and  Japanese 
in  other  respects  correspond.  Vari  - 
ous  other  important  branches  of  the 
human  species  are  brought  into  connec- 
tion with  the  Mongoloid  type,  though 
on  this  view  the  differences  they  pre- 
sent raise  difficult  problems  of  grad- 
ual variation,  as  well  as  of  mixture  of 
race ;  these  are  the  Dyak-Ma!ys,  the 
Polynesians,  and  the  Americans. 

The  Xanthochroi,  or  fair  whites — 
tall,  with  almost  colorless  skin,  blue 
or  gray  eyes,  hair  from  straw  c.-^1or  to 
chestnut,  and  skulls  varying  as  to  pi^^- 
portionate  width — are  the  prevalent 
inhabitants  of  Northern  Europe,  and 
the  type  may  be  traced  into  North 


Africa,  and  eastward  as  far  as  Hindo- 
stan.  On  the  south  and  west  ii  mixes 
with  that  of  the  Melanochroi,  or  dark 
whites,  and  on  the  north  and  east  with 
that  of  the  Mongoloids. 

The  Melanochroi,  or  dark  whites, 
differ  from  the  fair  whites  in  the  dark- 
ening of  the  complexion  to  brownish 
and  olive,  and  of  the  eyes  and  hair  to 
black,  while  the  stature  is  somewhat 
lower  and  the  frame  lighter.  To  this 
class  belong  a  large  part  of  those 
classed  as  Kelts,  and  of  the  popula- 
tions of  Southern  Europe,  such  as 
Spaniards,  Greeks,  and  Arabs,  ex^end- 
ing  as  far  as  India;  while  endless  in- 
termediate grades  between  the  two 
white  types  testify  to  ages  of  inter- 
mingling. Professor  Huxley  is  dis- 
posed to  account  for  the  Melanochroi 
as  themselves  the  result  of  crossing 
between  the  Xanthochroi  and  the 
Australioids.  Whatever  ground  there 
may  be  for  his  view,  it  is  obviously 
desirable  to  place  them  in  a  class  by 
themselves,  distinguishing  them  by  an 
appropriate  name. 

In  .determining  whether  the  races 
of  mankind  are  to  be  classed  as  varie- 
ties  of  one  species,  it  is  important  to 
decide  whether  every  two  races  can 
unite  to  produce  fertile  offspring.  It 
is  settled  by  experience  that  the  most 
numerous  and  well-known  crossed 
races,  such  as  the  Mulattos,  descended 
from  Europeans  and  Negroes — the 
Mestizos,  from  Europeans  and  Amer- 
ican indigenes — the  Zambos,  from 
these  American  indigenes,  and  Ne- 
groes, etc.,  ate  permanently  fertile. 
They  practically  constitute  sub-races, 
with  a  general  blending  of  the  charac- 
ters of  the  two  parents,  and  only  dif- 
fering from  fully  established  races  in 
more  or  less  tendency  to  revert  to 
one  or  other  of  the  original  types.  It 
has  been  argued,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  not  all  such  mixed  breeds  are 
permanent,  and  especially  that  the 
cross  between  Europeans  and  Austra- 
lian indigenes  is  almost  sterile ;  but 
this  assertion,  when  examined  with 
the  care  demat>ded  by  its  bearing  on 
the  general  question  of  hybridity,  has 
distinctly    broken    down.      On    the 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


13 


whole,  the  general  e/idence  favors  the 
opiryon  that  any  two  races  may  coni 
bine  to  produce  a  new  sub-race,  which 
again  may  combine  with  any  other 
variety.  (See  Waitz,  Anthropology^ 
vol.  i.  part  i.  sec.  3  ;  Darwin,  Descent 
of  Man,  part  i.  ch.  7  ;  Prichard,  Nat. 
Hist,  of  Man,  sect.  5  ;  on  the  other 
hand,  Broca,  Phenomena  of  Hybridity 
in  the  Genus  Homo,  1864.)  Thus,  if 
the  existence  of  a  small  number  of 
distinct  races  of  mankind  be  taken  as 
a  starting-point,  it  is  obvious  that  their 
crossing  would  produce  an  indefinite 
number  of  secondary  varieties,  such 
as  the  population  of  the  world  actually 
presents.  The  working  out  in  detail 
of  the  problem,  how  far  the  dififerences 
among  complex  nations,  such  as  those 
of  Europft,  may  have  been  brought 
about  by  hybridity,  is  still,  however, 
a  task  of  almost  hopeless  intricacy. 
Among  the  boldest  attempts  to  ac- 
count for  distinctly-marked  popu- 
lations as  resulting  from  the  inter- 
mixture of  two  races,  are  Professor 
Huxley's  view  that  the  Hottentots  are 
hybrid  between  the  Bushmen  and  the 
Negroes,  and  his  more  important  sug- 
gestion, that  the  Melanochroic  peoples 
of  Southern  Europe  are  of  mixed  Xan- 
thochroic  and  Australioid  stock. 

The  problem  of  ascertaining  how 
the  snail  number  of  races,  distinct 
enough  to  be  called  primary,  can  have 
assumed  their  different  types,  has  been 
for  years  the  most  disputed  field  of 
anthropology,  the  battle-ground  of  the 
rival  schools  of  monogenists  and  poly- 
genists.  The  one  has  claimed  all 
mankind  to  be  descended  from  one 
original  stock,  and  generally  from  a 
single  pair;  the  other  has  contended 
for  the  several  primary  races  being 
separate  species  of  independent  ori- 
gin. It  is  not  merely  as  a  question 
of  natural  history  that  the  matter  has 
been  argued.  Biblical  authority  has 
been  appealed  to,  mostly  on  the  side 
of  the  monogenists,  as  recording  the 
descent  of  mankind  from  a  single  pair. 
(See,  for  example.  Home's  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Scriptures;  the  Speaker's 
Commentary,  Gen.  i.)  On  the  other 
hand,   however,   the   polygenists   not 


less  confidently  claim  passages  from 
which  they  infer  the  existence  of  non- 
Adamite,  as  well  as  Adamite  races  of 
man.  (See,  for  example,  R.  S,  Poole, 
Genesis  of  the  Earth  and  Man.)  Nor 
have  political  considerations  been 
without  influence,  as  where,  for  in- 
stance, one  American  school  of  ethnol- 
ogists have  been  thought  to  have 
formed,  under  the  bias  of  a  social  sys- 
tem recognizing  slavery,  their  opinion 
that  the  Negro  and  the  white  man  are 
of  different  species.  (See  Morton, 
Crania  Americana ;  Nott  and  Gliddon, 
Types  of  Mankind.)  Of  the  older 
school  of  scientific  monogenists,  Blum- 
enbach  and  Prichard  are  eminent  rep- 
resentatives, as  is  Quatrefages  of  the 
more  modern.  The  great  problem  of 
the  monogenist  theory  is  to  explain  by 
what  course  of  variation  the  so  differ- 
ent races  of  man  have  arisen  from  a 
single  stock.  In  ancient  times  little 
difficulty  was  felt  in  this,  authorities 
such  as  Aristotle  and  Vitruvius  seeing 
in  climate  an  1  circumstance  the  nat- 
ural cause  of  racial  differences,  the 
Ethiopian  having  been  blackened  by 
the  tropical  sun,  etc.  Later  and  clos- 
er observations,  however,  have  shown 
such  influences  to  be,  at  any  rate,  far 
slighter  in  amount  and  slower  in  oper- 
ation than  was  once  supposed.  M. 
de  Quatrefages  brings  forward  {Unitd- 
ds  rEsphe  JIumaine,  Paris,  186 1,  ch, 
13)  his  strongest  arguments  for  the 
variability  of  races  under  change  of 
climate,  etc.,  (action  du  milieu^  in- 
stancing the  asserted  alteration  in 
complexion,  constitution,  and  charac- 
ter of  Negroes  in  America,  and  Eng- 
lishmen in  America  and  Australia. 
But  although  the  reality  of  some  such 
modification  is  not  disputed,  especially 
as  to  stature  and  constitution,  its 
amount  is  not  enough  to  upset  the 
counter-proposition  of  the  remarkable 
permanence  of  type  displayed  by 
races  ages  after  they  have  been  trans- 
ported to  climates  extremely  different 
from  that  of  their  former  home. 
Moreover,  physically  different  races, 
such  as  the  Bushmen  and  Negroids 
in  Africa,  show  no  signs  of  approxi- 
mation  under  the  influence   of    the 


16 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


same  climate ;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  coast  tribes  of  Tierra  del 
Fuego  and  forest  tribes  of  tropical 
Brazil  continue  to  resemble  one 
another,  in  spite  of  extreme  differ- 
ence:-, cf  climate  and  food.  Mr. 
Darwin,  than  whom  no  naturalist 
could  be  more  competent  to  appraise 
the  variation  of  a  species,  is  moderate 
in  hi'j  estimation  of  the  changes  pro- 
duced on  races  of  man  by  climate  and 
mode  of  life  within  the  range  of  his- 
tory {Descent  of  Man,  part  i.  ch.  4  and 
7).  The  slightness  and  slowness  of 
Vfiiation  in  human  races  having  be- 
come known,  a  great  difficulty  of  the 
monogenist  theory  was  seen  to  lie  in 
the  shortness  of  the  chronology  with 
which  it  was  formerly  associated.  In- 
asmuch as  several  well-marked  races 
of  mankind,  such  as  the  Egyptian, 
Phoenician,  Ethiopian,  etc.,  were 
much  the  same  three  or  four  thou- 
sand years  ago  as  now,  their  variation 
from  a  single  stock  in  the  course  of 
any  like  period  could  hardly  be  ac- 
counted for  without  a  miracle.  This 
difficulty  was  escaped  by  the  polyge- 
nist  theory,  which,  till  a  few  years  since, 
was  gaining  ground.  (See  Pouchet, 
Plurality  of  the  Human  Race,  2d  ed., 
1864,  Introd.)  Two  modern  views 
have,  however,  intervened  which  have 
tended  to  restore,  though  under  a 
new  aspect,  the  doctrine  of  a  single 
human  stock.  One  has  been  the  rec- 
ognition of  man  having  existed  during 
a  vast  period  of  time  (see  sec.  IV., 
Antiquity  of  Man),  which  made  it 
more  easy  to  assume  the  continuance 
of  very  slow  natural  variation  as  hav- 
ing differenced  even  the  white  man 
and  the  Negro  among  the  decendants 
of  a  common  progenitor.  The  other 
view  is  that  of  the  evolution  or  develop- 
ment of  species,  at  the  present  day  so 
strongly  upheld  among  naturalists. 
It  does  not  follow  necessarily  from  a 
theory  of  evolution  of  species  that 
mankind  must  have  descended  from 
a  single  stock,  for  the  hypothesis  of 
development  admits  of  the  argument, 
that  several  simious  species  may  have 
culminated  in  several  races  of  man 
(Vogt,  Lectures  on  Man,  London,  1864, 


p.  463).  The  general  tendency  of 
the  development  theory,  however,  is 
against  constituting  separate  species 
where  the  differences  are  moderate 
enough  to  be  accounted  for  as  due  to 
variation  from  a  single  type.  Mr. 
Darwin's  summing  up  of  the  evidence 
as  to  unity  of  type  throughout  the 
races  of  mankind  is  as  distinctly  a 
monogenist  argument  as  those  of 
Blumenbach,  Prichard,  or  Quatre- 
fages — 

"  Although  the  existing  races  of  man  differ 
in  many  respects,  as  in  color,  hair,  shape  of 
skull,  proportions  of  the  body,  etc.,  yet,  if 
their  whole  organization  be  taken  in  consider- 
ation they  are  found  to  resemble  each  other 
closely  in  a  multitude  of  points.  Many  of 
these  points  are  of  so  unimportant,  or  of  so  sin- 
gular a  nature,  that  it  is  extremelyJmprobable 
that  they  should  have  been  independently 
acquired  by  aboriginally  distinct  species  or 
races.  The  ."ame  remark  holds  good  with 
equal  or  greater  force  with  respect  to  the 
numerous  points  of  mental  similarity  between 
the  most  distinct  races  of  man.  .  .  .  Now, 
when  naturalists  observe  a  close  agreement  in 
numerous  small  details  of  hab'.ts,  tastes,  and 
dispositions  between  two  or  more  domestic 
races,  or  between  nearly  allied  natural  forms, 
they  use  this  fact  as  an  argument  that  all  are 
descended  from  a  common  progenitor,  who 
was  thus  endowed ;  and,  consequently,  that 
all  should  be  classed  under  the  same  species. 
Thesame  argument  may  be  applied  with  much 
force  to  the  races  of  man."— '(Darwin,  Z>e- 
scent  of  Man,  part  i.  ch.  7.) 

A.  suggestion  by  Mr.  A.  R.  Wallace 
has  great  importance  in  the  applica- 
tioa  of  the  development  thecrj'  to  the 
origin  of  the  various  races  of  man  ;  it 
is  aimed  to  meet  the  main  difficulty 
of  the  monogenist  school,  how  races 
which  have  remained  comparatively 
fixed  in  type  during  the  long  period 
of  history,  such  as  the  white  man  and 
the  Negro,  should  have,  in  even  a  far 
longer  period,  passed  by  variation 
from  a  common  original.  Mr.  Wal- 
lace's view  is  substantially  that  the  re- 
motely ancient  representatives  of  the 
human  species,  being  as  yet  animals 
too  low  in  mind  to  have  developed 
those  arts  of  maintenance  and  social 
ordinances  by  which  man  holds  his 
own  against  mfluences  from  climate 
and  circumstance,  were  in  their  then 
wild  state  much  more  plastic  than 


ANTHKOl'OLOGY, 


17 


iency  of 
wever,  is 
i  Species 
moderate 
IS  due  to 
)e.  Mr. 
evidence 
hout  the 
itinctly  a 
those  of 
Qu  at  re- 


man differ 
r,  shape  of 
;tc.,  yet,  if 
n  consider- 
each  other 
Many  of 
3r  of  so  sin- 
mprobable 
ependently 
species  or 
good  with 
lect  to  the 
ity  between 
.  .  .  Now, 
[reempnt  in 
tastes,  and 
e  domestic 
,ural  forms, 
Ihat  all  are 
nitor,  who 

ntly,  that 
ne  species. 

with  much 
irwin,  De- 


Wallace 

applica- 

y  to  the 

man  ;  it 

ifficulty 

)w  races 

aratively 

period 

man  and 

ren  a  far 

/ariatjon 

r.  Wal- 

t  the  re- 

s  of  the 

animals 

veloped 

social 

olds  his 

climate 

iir  then 

ic  than 


now  to  external  nature  ;  so  that  "  nat- 
u?ar  selection"  and  other  ,c{iuses 
met  with  but  feeble  resistance  in  form- 
ing the  permanent  varieties  or  races 
of  man,  whose  complexion  and  struct- 
ure still  remain  fixed  in  their  descend- 
ants. (See  Wallace,  Conlnhutions  to 
the  Theory  of  Natural  Selection,  p. 
319.)  On  the  whole,  it  may  be  as- 
serted that  the  doctrine  of  the  unity 
of  mankind  now  stands  on  a  firmer 
basis  than  in  previous  ages.  It  would 
be  prema  re  to  judge  how  far  the 
problem  of  the  origin  of  races  may  be 
capable  of  exact  solution  ;  but  the  ex- 
perience of  the  last  few  years  count- 
enances Mr.  Darwin's  prophecy,  that 
before  long  the  dispute  between  the 
monogenists  and  the  polygenists  will 
die  a  silent  and  unobserved  death. 


V.     ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN. 

It  was  until  of  late  years  commonly 
held  among  the  educated  classes, 
that  man's  first  appearance  on  earth 
might  be  treated  on  a  historical  basis 
as  matter  of  record.  It  is  true  that 
the  schemes  drawn  up  by  chronolo- 
gists  differed  widely,  as  was  naturally 
the  case,  considering  the  variety  and 
inconsistenty  of  their  documentary 
data.  On  the  whole,  the  scheme  of 
Archbishop  Usher,  who  computed 
that  the  earth  and  man  were  created 
in  4004  B.C.,  was  the  most  popular. 
It  is  no  longer  necessary,  however, 
to  discuss  these  chronologies,  inas- 
much as  new  evidence  has  so  changed 
the  aspect  of  the  subject,  that  the 
quasi-historical  schemes  of  the  last 
century  would  now  hardly  be  main- 
tained by  any  competent  authority  of 
any  school.  Geology,  notwithstand- 
ing the  imperfection  of  its  results,  has 
made  it  manifest  that  our  earth  must 
have  been  the  seat  of  vegetable  and 
animal  life  for  an  immense  period  of 
time;  while  the  first  appearance  of 
man,  though  comparatively  recent,  is 
positively  so  remote,  that  an  estimate 
between  twenty  and  a  hundred  thou- 
sand years  may  fairly  be  taken  as  a 


minimum.  This  geological  claim  for 
a  vast  antiquity  of  the  human  race  is 
supported  by  the  similar  claims  of 
prehistoric  archteology  and  the  science 
of  culture,  the  evidence  of  all  three 
de|)artments  of  inquiry  being  inti- 
mately connected,  and  iu  perfect  har- 
mony. 

During  the  last  half  century,  the 
fact  has  been  established  that  human 
bones  and  objects  of  human  manu- 
facture occur  in  such  geological  rela- 
tion to  the  remains  of  fossil  species  of 
elephant,  rhinoceros,  hyaena,  bear, 
etc.,  as  to  lead  to  the  distinct  infer- 
ence that  man  already  existed  during 
the  ancient  period  of  these  now  ex- 
tinct mammalia.  The  not  quite  con- 
clusive researches  of  MM.  Tournal 
and  Christol  in  limestone  caverns  of 
the  south  of  France  date  back  to  1828. 
About  the  same  time  Dr.  Schmerling 
of  Lidge  was  exploring  the  ossiferous 
caverns  of  the  valley  of  the  Meuse, 
and  satisfied  himself  that  the  men 
whose  bones  he  found  beneath  the 
stalagmite  floors,  together  with  bones 
cut  and  flints  shaped  by  human  work- 
manship, had  inhabited  this  Belgian 
district  at  the  same  time  with  the 
cave-bear  and  several  other  extinct 
animals  whose  bones  were  imbedded 
with  them  {Recherches  sur  les  Osse- 
ments  fossiles  d^couverts  dans  les  Ca- 
vernes  de  la  Province  de  Litfge,  Lidge, 
1833-34).  This  evidence,  however, 
met  with  little  acceptance  among  sci- 
entific men.  Nor,  at  first,  was  more 
credit  given  to  the  discovery  by  M. 
Boucher  de  Perthes,  about  1841,  of 
rude  flint  hatchets  in  a  sand-bed  con- 
taining remains  of  mammoth  and  rhi- 
noceros at  Menchecourt  near  Abbe- 
ville, which  first  find  was  followed  by 
others  in  the  same  district  (see  Bou- 
cher de  Perthes,  De  F Industrie  Prim- 
itive, ou  les  Arts  d  leur  Origine,  1846 ; 
Antiqtiith  Celtiques  et  Ant/diluviennes, ' 
Paris,  1847,  ^tC')  '■>  between  1850  and 
i860  competent  French  and  English 
geologists,  among  them  Pugollot,  Fal- 
coner, Prestwich,  and  Evans,  were  in- 
duced to  examine  into  the  facts,  and 
found  the  evidence  irresistible  that 
man  existed  and  used  rude    imple- 


18 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


iii 


i  it 


ments  of  chipped  flint  during  the 
Quaternary  or  I)rift  period.  Further 
investigations  were  now  made,  and 
overlooked  results  of  older  ones  re- 
viewed. In  describing  Kent's  Hole, 
near  Torquay,  Mr.  Godwin-Austen 
had  maintained,  as  early  as  1840 
(Froc.  Geo.  Soc.  London,  vol.  iii.  p. 
286),  that  the  human  bones  and 
worked  Hints  had  been  deposited  in- 
discriminately together  with  the  re- 
mains of  fossil  elephant,  rhinoceros, 
etc.;  a  minute  exploration  of  this  cav- 
ern has  since  been  carried  on  under 
the  superintendence  of  Messrs.  Vivi- 
an, Pengelly,  and  others,  fully  justi- 
fying Mr.  Godwin-Austen's  early  re- 
mark, that  'there  is  no  a  priori  rea- 
son why  man  and  the  several  animals 
whose  remains  occur  in  caves  and  in 
gravel  should  not  have  lived  here  at 
some  remote  time  "  (see  Pengelly, 
"Literature  of  Kent's  Cavern,"  in 
Trans.  Dti>onshire  Association^  1868). 
Especially  certain  caves  and  rock- 
shelters  in  the  province  of  Dordogne, 
in  central  France,  were  examined  by 
a  French  and  an  English  archaeolo- 
gist, Mons,  Edouard  Lartet  and  Mr. 
Henry  Christy,  the  remains  discov- 
ered showing  the  former  prevalence 
of  the  rein-deer  in  this  region,  at  that 
time  inhabited  by  savages,  whose 
bone  and  stone  implements  indicate  a 
habit  of  life  similar  to  that  of  the 
Esquimaux.  Moreover,  the  co-exist- 
ence of  man  with  a  fauna  now  ex- 
tinct or  confined  to  other  districts  was 
brought  to  yet  clearer  demonstration, 
by  the  discovery  in  these  caves  of 
certain  drawings  and  carvings  of  the 
animals  done  by  the  ancient  inhrb- 
itants  themselves,  such  as  a  group  of 
rein-deer  on  a  piece  of  rem-deer  horn, 
and  a  sketch  of  a  mammoth,  showing 
this  elephant's  long  hair,  on  a  piece 
of  a  mammoth's  tusk  from  La  Made- 
leine (Lartet  and  Christy,  Reliquice 
Aquitanicce,  ed.  by  T.  R.  Jones,  Lon- 
don, 1865,  etc.).  These  are  among 
the  earliest  and  principal  of  a  series 
of  discoveries  of  human  relics  belong- 
ing to  what  may  he  termed  geological 
antiquity,  with  which  should  be  men- 
dopi^d  Mr.  Boy4  DawHins's  examina- 


tion of  the  hyaena  den  of  Wokey 
Hole,  Dr.  Lund's  researches  in  the 
caves  of  Brazil,  those  in  the  south  of 
France  by  the  Marquis  de  Vibraye 
and  MM.  Garrigou  and  Filhol,  those 
in  Sicily  by  Dr.  Falconer,  and  Mr. 
Bruce  Foote's  discovery  of  rude 
quartzite  implements  in  the  la;erite  of 
India.  Fuller  details  of  the  general 
subject  will  be  found  in  Sir  C.  Lyell's 
Antiquity  of  Man,  4th  ed.,  London, 
1873  ;  Sir  John  LublDock's  Prehistoric 
Times,  3d  ed.,  London,  1873;  Dr.  H. 
Falconer's  Tahcontological  Memoirs, 
London,  1868  ;  the  volumes  of  Proceed- 
ings of  the  International  Congress  of 
Prehistoric  Archceology ;  and  the  peri- 
odical Matt'riaux  pour  l  Histoire 
Primitive  et  Nattirelle  de  V Homme, 
edited  at  first  by  De  Mortillet,  and 
since  by  Trulat  and  Cartailhac. 

This  evidence  is  now  generally 
accepted  by  geologists  as  carrying 
back  the  existence  of  man  into  the 
period  of  the  post-glacial  drift,  in 
what  is  now  called  the  Quaternary 
period.  That  this  indicates  an  antiq- 
uity at  least  of  tens  of  thousands  of 
years  may  be  judged  in  several  ways. 
The  very  position  in  which  these  rude 
instruments  were  found  showed  that 
they  belonged  to  a  time  quite  separate 
froiTi  that  of  history.  Thus,  at  St. 
Acheul  flint  hatchets  occur  in  a . 
gravel-bed  immediately  overlying  the 
chalk,  which  bed  is  covered  by  some 
12  feet  of  sand  and  marl,  capped  by  a 
layer  of  soil,  which  is  shown  by  graves 
of  the  Gallo-Roman  period  to  have 
been  hardly  altered  during  the  last 
1500  years.  This  distinction  between 
the  drift  deposits  and  those  contain- 
ing relics  of  historic  ages  is,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule  evident  at  a  glance.  Next, 
the  succession  of  ages  to  which  differ- 
ent classes  of  remains  belong  is  well 
marked  ;  the  drift  implements  belong 
to  the  palaeolithic  or  old  stone  age, 
when  as  yet  the  implements  were  ex- 
tremely rude,  and  not  ground  or  pol- 
ished ;  above  these  in  deposit,  and 
therefore  later  in  time,  come  the 
artistically  shaped  and  polished  celts 
of  the  neolithic  or  new  stone  age  ; 
above    these,    again,  relics    of    the 


I 


ANTllROi'OLOGy. 


ments,  comprise 
mammalia  which 
extinct,  such  as 
hairy  rhinoceros, 


brQnze  and  early  iron  ages,  mlh 
which  historical  antiquity  in  Kurope 
begins.  Again,  the  animals  of  the 
Quaternary  period,  whose  bonts  are 
found  with  the  rude  stone  imple- 
several  species  of 
have  since  become 
the  mammoth,  the 
and  the  Irish  elk, 
while  others,  such  as  the  rein-deer 
and  musk-ox,  now  only  inhabit  remote 
districts.  It  is  generally  considered 
that  such  a  fauna  indicates,  at  any 
rate  during  part  of  the  Quaternary 
period,  a  severer  climate  than  now 
prevails  in  France  and  England. 
This  difference  from  the  present  con- 
ditions seems  to  confirm  the  view, 
that  the  twenty  centuries  of  French 
and  English  history  form  but  a  frac- 
tion of  the  time  which  has  elapsed 
since  the  stone  implements  of  prehis- 
toric tribes  were  first  buried  under 
beds  of  gravel  and  sand  by  the  rivers 
now  represented  by  the  Thames  or 
the  Somme.  Still  vaster,  however,  is 
the  idea  of  antiquity  suggested  by  the 
geographical  conformation  of  such 
valleys  as  those  in  which  these  rivers 
flow.  The  drift-beds  lie  on  their 
sides  often  loo  to  200  feet,  and  even 
more,  above  the  present  flood-levels. 
As  such  highest  deposits  seem  to 
mark  the  time  when  the  rivers  flowed 
at  heights  so  far  above  the  present 
channels,  it  follows  that  the  drift-beds, 
and  the  men  whose  works  they  en- 
close, must  have  existed  during  a 
great  part  of  the  time  occupied  by  the 
rivers  in  excavating  their  valleys 
down  to  their  present  beds.  Grant- 
ing it  as  possible  that  the  rivers  by 
which  this  enormous  operation  was 
performed  were  of  greater  volume 
and  proportionately  still  greater 
power  in  flood-time  than  the  present 
streams,  which  seem  so  utterly  inad- 
equate to  their  valleys,  and  granting 
also,  that  under  different  conditions  of 
climate  the  causing  of  debacles  by 
ground-ice  may  have  been  a  po''  .rful 
excavating  agent,  nevertheless,  with 
all  such  allowances  the  reckoning  of 
ages  seems  vastly  out  of  proportion  to 
ljistorica,l  chronology.     It  is  «ot  con- 


venient to  discuss  here  Mr.  Trest- 
wich's  division  of  the  drift  gravels 
into  high  and  low  level  beds,  nor  Mr. 
A.  Tylor's  argument  against  this  divi- 
sion, nor  the  latter's  theory  of  a  Plu- 
vial period  succeeding  the  Glacial  pe- 
riod (see  Quart,  Journ.  Geol.  Soc.^ 
vol.  xxiv.  part  2,  vol.  xxv.  part  i). 
The  geology  of  the  Quaternary  or 
Post-tertiary  gravels,  on  which  the 
geological  argument  for  the  high 
antiquity  of  man  mainly  rests,  has 
been  especially  treated  by  Prestwich 
in  the  Fhilos.  Trans.,  i860,  p.  277, 
and  1864,  p.  247  ;  see  also  J.  Evans, 
Ancient  Stone  Impis.,  ch.  25  ;  refer- 
ences to  the  writings  of  other  geolo- 
gists will  be  found  in  the  already 
mentioned  works  of  Lyell  and  Lub- 
bock. 

Beside  these  arguments,  which  sug- 
gest high  antiquity  rather  than  offer 
means  of  calculation,  certain  infer- 
ences (accounts  of  which  are  also 
given  in  the  last-named  works)  have 
been  tentatively  made  from  the  depth 
of  mud,  earth,  peat,  etc.,  which  has 
accumulated  above  relics  of  human 
art  imbedded  in  ancient  times. 
Among  these  is  Mr.  Horner's  argu- 
ment from  the  numerous  borings 
made  in  the  alluvium  of  the  Nile  val- 
ley to  a  depth  of  60  feet,  where  down 
to  the  lowest  level  fragments  of  burnt 
brick  and  pottery  were  always  found, 
showing  that  people  advanced  enough 
in  the  arts  to  bake  brick  and  pottery 
have  inhabited  the  valley  during  the 
long  period  requi  -ed  for  the  Nile  in- 
undations to  deposit  60  feet  of  mud, 
at  a  rate  probably  not  averaging  more 
than  a  few  inches  in  a  cejitury. 
Another  argument  is  that  of  Professor 
von  Morlot,  based  on  a  railway  sec- 
tion through  a  conical  accumulation 
of  gravel  and  alluvium,  which  the  tor- 
rent of  the  Tiniibre  has  gradually 
built  up  where  it  enters  the  Lake  of 
Geneva  near  Villeneuve.  Here  three 
layers  of  vegetable  soil  appear,  proved 
by  the  objects  imbedded  in  them  to 
have  been  the  successive  surface-soils 
in  two  prehistoric  periods  and  in  tl^ 
Roman  peripd,  and  which  now  lie  4, 
iQ,  and  ip  f^et  undergiound;  ontitiis 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


h'4 


m 


li- 


m 


it  is  computed  that  if  4  feet  of  soil 
were  formed  in  the  1500  years  since 
the  Roman  period,  we  must  go  5000 
years  farther  back  for  the  date  of  the 
earliest  human  inhabitants.  Calcula- 
tions of  this  kind,  loose  as  they  are, 
deserve  attention. 

The  interval  between  the  Quater- 
nary or  Drift  period  and  the  period 
of  historical  antiquity  is  to  some  ex- 
tent bridged  over  by  relics  of  various 
intermediate  civilizations,  mostly  of 
the  lower  grades,  and  in  some  cases 
reaching  back  to  remote  dates.  The 
lake  dwellings  of  Switzerland  are 
perhaps  among  the  more  recent  of 
these.  They  were  villages  of  huts 
built  on  piles  in  the  water  at  some 
distance  from  the  shore,  for  security 
from  attack — in  fact,  fortified  water 
settlements  of  the  same  nature  as 
those  of  Lake  Prasias  in  the  time  of 
Herodotus,  and  as  those  still  inhab- 
ited in  New  Guinea  and  West  Africa. 
The  remains  of  these  Swiss  villages 
are  found  with  the  stumps  of  the  piles 
still  standing,  often  imbedded  in  an 
accumulation  of  mud  or  growth  of 
peat  which  has  preserved  a  kind  of 
illustrative  museum  of  the  arts  and 
habits  pf  the  lake  men.  From  exam- 
ination of  the  sites,  it  appears  that 
the  settlements  are  of  various  dates, 
from  the  neolithic  or  polished  stone 
period,  when  instruments  of  metal 
were  still  unknown,  to  the  time  when 
bronze  was  introduced,  and  beyond 
this  into  the  later  age  marked  by  the 
use  of  iron.  A  few  of  the  lake  vil- 
lages lasted  on  till  the  Roman  domin- 
ion, as  is  proved  by  the  presence  of  Ro- 
man coins  and  pottery,  but  they  were 
soon  afterward  abandoned,  so  that 
their  very  existence  was  forgotten, 
and  their  rediscovery  only  uatf's  from 
i8i;3,  when  the  workmen  excavating 
a  oed  of  mud  on  the  shore  of  the 
Lake  of  Zurich  found  themselves 
standing  among  the  piles  of  a  lake 
settlement.  In  Germany,  Italy,  and 
other  countries,  similar  remains  of  a 
long  pre-Roman  civilization  have  been 
found.  (The  special  works  on  lake 
habitations  are  Dr.  Keller's  Lake 
Dwellings,  translated  by  J.  E.  Lee, 


London,  1866;  and  Troyon's  Habita- 
tions Lacustres.)  Indications  of  man's 
antiquity,  extending  farther  back  into 
prehistoric  times,  are  furnished  by  the 
Danish  shell-heaps  or  "kjokkenmod- 
ding,"  which  term,  meaning  "  kitchen 
refuse-heap,"  has  been  Anglicized  in 
"kitchen  midden  "  (the  word  "mid- 
den," a  dung-heap,  being  still  current 
in  the  north  of  England).  Along  the 
shores  of  nearly  all  the  Danish  islands 
extensive  beds  or  low  mounds,  like 
raised  beaches,  may  be  seen,  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  innumerable  cast-away 
shells,  intermingled  with  bones,  etc. 
Such  shell-heaps  are  found  in  all  quar- 
ters of  the  globe  by  the  sea-shore, 
and  may  be  sometimes  seen  in  proc- 
ess of  formation  •  they  are  simply  the 
accumulations  of  shells  and  refuse 
thrown  away  near  the  huts  of  rude 
tribes  subsisting  principally  on  shell- 
fish. The  Danish  kitchen  middens, 
however,  are  proved  to  belong  to  a 
very  ancient  time,  by  the  remains  of 
the  quadrupeds,  birds,  and  fish,  which 
served  as  the  food  of  these  rude 
hunters  and  fishers ;  among  these  are 
bones  of  the  wild  bull,  beaver,  seal, 
and  great  auk,  all  now  extinct  or  rare 
in  this  region.  Moreover,  a  striking 
proof  of  the  antiquity  of  these  shell- 
heaps  is,  that  the  shells  of  the  com- 
mon oyster  are  found  of  full  size, 
whereas  it  cannot  live  at  present  in 
the  brackish  waters  of  the  Baltic  ex- 
cept near  its  entrance,  so  that  it  is  in- 
ferred that  the  shores  where  the  oys- 
ter at  that  time  flourished  were  open 
to  the  salt  sea.  Thus,  also,  the  eata- 
ble cockle,  mussel,  and  periwinkle 
abounding  in  the  kitchen  middens 
are  of  full  ocean  size,  whereas  those 
now  living  in  the  adjoining  waters 
are  dwarfed  to  a  third  of  their  natural 
size  by  the  want  of  saltness.  It  thus 
appears  that  the  connection  between 
the  ocean  and  the  Baltic  has  notably 
changed  since  the  time  of  these  rude 
stone-age  people.  (See  the  reports  by 
Forchhammer,  Steenstrup,  and  Wor- 
saae  on  the  kjokkenmoddings,  made 
to  the  Copenhagen  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences.) Various  other  evidence  is 
adduced  in  this  part  of  the  argument, 


.ANTHROPOLOGY. 


such  as  that  from  the  Danish  peat- 
mosses, which  show  the  existence  of 
man  at  a  time  when  the  Scotch  fir  was 
abundant ;  at  a  later  period  the  firs 
were  succeeded  by  oaks,  which  have 
again  been  almost  superseded  by 
beeches,  a  succession  of  changes 
which  Indicate  a  considerable  lapse 
of  time.  For  further  references  to 
special  accounts,  the  reader  may  con- 
sult the  already  mentioned  general 
works  on  the  antiquity  of  prehistoric 
man. 

Lastly,  ch'onicles  and  documentary 
records,  t.iken  in  connection  with 
archaeological  relics  .of  the  historical 
period,  carry  back  into  distant  iges 
the  starting-point  of  actual  history, 
behind  which  lies  the  evidently  vast 
period  only  known  by  inferences  from 
the  relations  ol  languages  and  the 
stages  of  development  of  civilization. 
Thus,  Egypt  affords  some  basis  for 
estimating  a  minimum  date  for  its 
ancient  population.  The  hieroglyphic 
inscriptions,  the  most  ancient  witten 
records  of  the  world,  preserve  direct 
memorials  of  a  time  v/hich  can  hardly 
be  less,  and  may  be  much  more,  than 
3000  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
With  all  the  doubt  which  besets  the 
attempt  to  extract  a  definite  chronol- 
ogy from  the  Egyptian  names  of  kings 
and  lists  of  dynasties  (see  Egypt), 
their  salient  points  fit  with  the  histor- 
ical records  of  other  nations.  Thus, 
the  great  Ramesside  dynasty,  known 
among  Egyptologists  as  the  19th  dy- 
nasty, corresponds  with  the  mention 
of  the  building  of  the  city  of  Raamses 
in  Exod.  i.  11;  Amenophis  III., 
called  by  the  Greeks  Memnon,  be- 
longs to  the  previous  i8th  dynasty ; 
while  the  three  pyramid  kings,  whom 
Herodotus  mentions  as  Cheops, 
Chephren,  and  Mykerinos,  and  whose 
actual  Egyptian  names  are  read  in 
the  hieroglyphic  lists  as  Chufu,  Chaf- 
ra,  and  Menkaura,  are  set  down  in 
the  4th  dynasty.  Lepsius  may  not  be 
over-estimating  when  he  dates  this 
dynasty  back  as  far  as  3124  B.C.,  and 
Carries  the  more  dubious  previous 
dynasue$  back  to  3892  bc.  before 
reaching  what  are  known  as  the  myth- 


ical dynasties,  which  probably  have 
their  bases  ratht-r  in  astronomical 
calculations  than  in  history  (I^psius, 
Konigsbuch  (^:r  alien  /Egypter^  iJerlin, 
1858  ;  compare  th**  computations  of 
tirugsch,  Bunsen,  Hincks,  Wilkinson, 
etc.). 

The  Greeks  of  the  classic  period 
could  discuss  the  Egyptian  chronol 
ogies  with  priests  and  scribes  who 
perpetuated  the  languages  and  rec- 
ords of  the'»-  earliest  dynasties;  and 
as  the  Septuagint  translation  cf  the 
Bible  was  made  at  Alexandria,  it  is 
not  impossible  that  its  giving  to  man 
a  considerably  greater  antiquity  than 
that  of  the  Hebrew  text  may  have  been 
due  to  the  influence  of  the  Egyptian 
chronology.  Even  if  the  lowest  ad' 
missible  calculations  be  taken,  this 
will  not  invalidate  the  main  fact,  that 
above  4000  years  ago  the  Egyptian 
nation  already  stood  nt  a  high  level 
of  industrial  and  social  culture.  The 
records  of  several  other  nations  show 
that  as  early  or  not  much  later  than 
this  they  had  attained  to  a  national 
civilization.  The  Bible,  whose  earli- 
est books  are  among  the  earliest  ex- 
isting chronicles,  shows  an  Israelite 
nation  existing  in  a  stafJ  of  patri- 
archal civilization  previous  co  tiiC  al- 
ready mentioned  time  of  contact  wiiS 
Egypt.  In  ancient  Chaldaea,  the  in- 
scribed bricks  of  Urukh's  temples 
probably  belong  i:o  a  date  beyond 
2000  years  B.C.  (G.  Rawlinson,  Five 
Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  East' 
em  Worlds  London,  1862,  etc..  vol.  i. 
ch.  8). 

The  Chinese  dynasties,  like  those 
of  Egypt,  begin  with  an  obviously 
mythical  portion,  and  continue  into 
actual  history;  the  difficulty  is  to 
draw  the  line  where  genuine  record 
begins.  Those  who  reckon  authentic 
history  only  from  the  dynasty  of 
Chow,  beginning  about  iioo  B.C., 
during  which  Confucius  lived,  will  at 
any  rate  hardly  deny  the  existence  of 
the  earlier  dynasty  of  Shang,  previ- 
ous to  which  the  yet  earlier  dynasty  of 
Hea  is  recorded ;  so  that,  though 
much  that  is  related  of  these  periods 
may  be  fabulous,  it  seems  certain  th^ 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


there  was  a  Chines'^  Aatiott  and'  a 
Chinese  civilisation  reaching  back 
beyond  2000  b.C.  (iee  Sir  John  Davis, 
Tne  ChiHeie;  i^aiithi^r^  Liiires  Sd£r/s 
derQrient:  Sfto- King,  etc.) 

Tfri  6f  late  it  was  a  commonly  re- 
ceived opinion  that  the  early  state  of 
society  was  orie  of  comparatively  high 
culture,  arid  those  who  held  this  opin- 
ion telt  lio  difi^Culty  in  a!ssigning  the 
origin  of  man  to  a  time  btit  little  be- 
yond the  range  of  historical  recbrds 
arid  rii6riuri:ier«t6.  At  present,  how- 
ever, tihe  view  has  become  paramount 
that  the  civilization  of  the  world  has 
been  giadualUy  developed  *rom  an 
original  st6rie-age  culture,,  such  as 
characte'rij^es  moderh  savage  life. 
To  hold  this  6piriion  necessiiatcs  the 
adding  to  the  4000  ti  5000  years  to 
which  the  aricient  civiliza:tions  of 
Egypt,  Babylon,  arid  China  date  back, 
a  pi-obably  rtiuch  greater  length  of 
tiriie,  duviri;^  \<>hich  the  knoiVledge, 
arts,  arid  iristitutions  of  these  coun- 
tries attained  fp  their  remalrkably  high 
level.  The  eviderice  of  comparative 
philology  CorrobWatei^  this  judgment. 
Thus,  Hebrew  and  Arabic  are  closely 
related  languages,  neither  of  them  the 
origin  at  of  the  other,  but  bbth  sprung 
from  soriie  parerit  language  riibre  an- 
cient thari  either.  When,  therefore, 
the  flebrew  records  have  carried  back 
to  the  iriost  aricient  idriii^ible  dite 
the  existerite  6f  the  Hebre\V  language, 
thi^  dfates  iriii^t  have  been  long  pre- 
ceded* by  that  of  the  extinct  parerit 
language  of  the  whole  Semitfc  family ; 
while  this  again  was  no  doubt  the  de- 
scendant of  languages  slowly  shading 
theriiselves  '^hrprigh  kges  into  this  pfe- 

.  ciiliar  type'.  Yet  hibt^'  sftrikirig  ?s  the 
evidence  6i  the  Aryan  6i  Indo-Euro- 
peari  familfy  of  liri^Uages.  The  Hin- 
dus, Kfede^,  Pe'fsidnS,  Greeks,  Ro- 
mans, (Gfermiris,  Kelts,  dnd  Slavils 
riiake  t^eir  a[f>^e^atanee  at  riiore  6f  le^s 
remote'  dates  ag  ftdtions  Separate  in 
larigu^fe  As  fri  hfetdry.  Nevertheless, 
it  is  n6Vi^  dcj^'n6\!vl6%ed  thact  iA  sdfm: 
ixt  f€iiit>iet  tiiViiei,  belOf^  the^e  riatioWs 
ilftt^dimkd  iiom  tfee  p^ttit  stotk, 

,ijid  cRsfriBtited  over  Asia  and  Etifope 
%  tb%  Ai^tm  dispe»16n,  a  sitigte  b  a- 


baric  people  stood  as  physical  and 
political  representative  of  the  nascent 
Aryan  ra;ce,  speaking  a  now  extinct 
Aryat.  language,  from  which,  by  a 
series  of  modifications  not  to  be  esti- 
mated as  possible  within  many  thou- 
sands of  years,  there  arose  languages 
which  have  been  mutually  unintelli- 
gible since  the  dawn  Of  history,  and 
between  which  it  was  only  possible 
for  an  age  of  advanced  philology  to 
trace  the  fundamental  relationship. 

From  the  combination  of  these  con- 
siderations, it  will  be  seen  hat  the 
farthest  date  to  which  documentary 
record  extends,  is  now  generally  re- 
garded by  anthropologist^  a;s  but  the 
earliest  distinctly  visible  point  of  the 
historic  period,  beyond  w^ich  stretches 
back  a  vast  indefinite  series  of  prehis- 
toric ages. 


VI.    LANGUAGE. 

In  e:tAmining  how  the  science  of 
language  bears  ori  the  general  prob- 
lems of  anthropology,  it  Is  ri'ot  neces- 
sary to  discuss  at  length  the  cntical 
question's  ^hich  arise.  Philology  is 
especially  appealed  to  by  arithrOpolO- 

f fists  as  contributing  to  the  following 
ines  of  argument.  A  pririiaty  mental 
similarity  of  aill  branches  of  the  human 
race  is  evidenced  by  their  common 
faculty  of  speech,  while  at  the  .^ame 
time  secOridary  diversities  of  race- 
character  and  historj'  are  marked  by 
difference  of  gYariimatical  structure 
arid  of  vocabularies.  The  existence 
cf  j^f6'tir>s  Or  fari^ilies  of  allied  lan- 
guage^, eacii  group  beiryg  evidently 
descended  froWi  a  single  latrignage, 
aiffOrds  onf'  of  the  principal  aids  in 
classifying  nations  and  races.  The 
Adoption  by  one  larigufige  of  words 
originally  belonging  to  another,  prov- 
ing as  it  does  the  f&tt  of  intercourse 
betV7^eri  tW6  tticti,  arid  ei'eri  to  some 
eitent  ii^dicdting  the  ^e^lfs  of  such 
iritercoti^ste,  affords  4  valuable  clue 
thi^ough  obscure  regidnsT  ti  the  his- 
tory of  civiltzatton. 
Conimdriicatidn   b^   |^sfwr&-signs» 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


23 


b6tV7eeh  persohs  uhable  to  converse 
iti  vocal  language,  is  ah  effective  syis- 
tem  of  expression  common  ;o  all  man- 
kind. Thus,  the  signs  used  to  ask  a 
deaf  and  dumb  child  about  his  meals 
and  lessons,  or  to  communicate  with 
a  savage  met  in  th6  idesert  about  game 
or  enemies,  belong  to  c6des  6f  gest- 
ure-signa  s  identical  in  principle,  and 
to  d  great  ext6nt  independent  both  of 
nationality  and  education ;  there  is 
even  a  natural  syntax,  or  order  of  suc- 
cession, in  such  gesture-signs.  To 
these  gestures  let  there  be  added  the 
use  of  the  intierjectional  cries,  such  as 
oA  I  ugh  I  hey  !  and  imitative  sounds 
to  represent  the  cat's  mew,  the  click  of 
a  trigger,  the  clap  or  thud  of  a  blow, 
etc.  The  total  result  of  this  combina- 
tion of  gesture  and  significant  sound 
will  be  a  general  system  of  expression, 
imperfect  but  serviceable,  and  hatur- 
ally  intelligible  to  all  rnankind  without 
diStinctioti  of  rac6.  Nor  is  Such  a 
system  of  cortimunication  only  theo- 
rttically  conceivable ;  it  is,  and  al\lvays 
has  been,  in  practical  operation  be- 
tween people  ignorant  of  6he  another's 
language,  and  as  such  is  largely  used 
in  the  intercourse  of  savage  tribes. 
It  is  true  that  t6  some  extent  these 
means  of  utterance  ar^  common  to 
the  lower  animals,  the  power  of  ex- 
pressing emotion  by  cries  arid  tdries 
extending  far  down  in  the  scale  of 
animal  life,  while  rudimentary  gest- 
ure-sighs are  mado  by  various  mahi- 
mals  and  birds.  Still,  the  lower  an- 
imals make  no  appi'oach  to  the  hu- 
man system  of  natural  utterance  by 
gesture-Signs  and  6m'otional-imitative 
souhds,  whil'6  the  practical  identity  of 
this  human  System  ihibng  raees  phys- 
ically sO  uhlike  as  the  Englishman  ahd 
the  native  of  the  Australiah  bush, 
indicates  extreme  closeness  of  mental 
Similarity  tfiroughbut  the  huh^ah  spe- 
cies. 

When,  hoW^fer,  the  Entflistirtiaih 
and  the  Australian  sp'iak  each  in  his 
hitive  tohghe,  only  shch  ^di'rfi  *5  be- 
|6hg  to  the  ?ii'terjectio'nal  ^^d  inVft'at- 
ive  tlisi^s  ^m  bfe  hafttrally  ipfenim 
bfe,  arid  as  it  w6Ve  ih^tiRctiv^  t  both. 
TlbuS  the  SaV^ge,  uttet%g  th&  liouhd 


waow  !  as  an  explanation  of  surprise 
and  warning,  might  be  answered  by 
the  white  man  with  the  not  less  evi- 
dently significant  sh  !  of  silence,  and 
the  two  speakers  would  be  on  com- 
mon ground  when  the  native  indicated 
by  the  name  bwirri  his  cudgel,  flung 
whirring  throu^'h  the  air  at  a  flock  oi 
birds.  Or  when  ihe  native  described 
as  Si  jahkal-yahhat  the  bird  called  by 
the  foreigner  a  cockatoo.  With  these, 
ahd  otiier  very  lirriifed  classes  of  nat- 
ural words,  however,  resemblance  in 
vocabulary  practically  ceases.  The 
Australian  and  English  languages 
each  consist  riiainly  of  a  series  of 
words  having  no  apparent  connetfion 
with  the  ideas  they  signify,  and  dif- 
fering utterly;  of  course,  accidental 
coincidehces  and  borrowed  words 
must  be  excluded  from  such  cortipar- 
isons.  It  would  be  easy  to  enumerate 
other  languages  of  the  world.  Such  as 
Basque,  Turkish,  Hebrew,  Malay, 
Mexican,  all  devoid  of  traceable  re- 
semblanfie  to  Australian  and  English, 
ahd  to  one  another.  There  is,  more- 
over, extreme  difference  in  the  gram- 
matical Structure  both  of  words  and 
sentences  in  various  languages.  The 
question  fhon  arises,  how  far  the  em- 
ploymeht  of  different  vocabularies, 
and  that  to  a  great  extent  on  different 
gi'ammatical  principles,  is  compatible 
with  similarity  of  the  speaker's  minds, 
or  how  far  does  diversity  of  speech 
indicate  diversity  of  mental  nature? 
The  obvious  answer  is,  that  the 
power  of  using  words  as  signs  t6 
express  thoughts  with  which  their 
sound  does  not  directly  connect  them, 
ih  fact  as  arbitrary  Symbols,  is  th^ 
highest  gride  of  the  special  huhiah 
faculty  ih  lariguage,  the  presence  of 
which  binds  together  all  races  of 
ihankihd  m  Substantidil  mental  uhity. 
The  iheasure  of  tifiis  unity  is,  that  ahy 
child  of  any  race  can  be- b/ought  up 
to  spe'a^  the  language  of  ahy  oth^r 

T(l>"  as(iertain  ttie  causes  to  which 
iWhguages  6"^^  tKeii  unlikehess  ih 
hiaterial  and  strhc^ure,  how  lar  to  e'^ 
sential  difTet'ehces  of  mental  type 
among  ik^   ^ades  61  ihatikmd,  ahd 


24 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


how  far  to  minor  causes  of  variation, 
which  may  be  calbd  secondary,  is  a 
problem  of  extreme  difficulty,  toward 
the   precise  solution   of   which   little 
has  yet  been  done.     One  of  the  most 
remarkable  of  linguistic  differences  is 
thf^  tendency  of  some  languages  to  is- 
olate their  words,  and  of   others   to 
form  elaborate    inflections.     The  ex- 
tremes  may  be    seen,  on    the    one 
hand,  in  an  ordinary  Chinese  sentence 
of    isolated    monosyllables,   such   as 
"^«  tsze  nien  chiu  tsin,  tungchu"  etc., 
i.e.y  "  in  this  year  autumn  ended,  win- 
ter begun,"  etc.;   and,  on  the  other 
hand,  in  one  of  the  monstrous  poly- 
syllables into  which  tne  Greenlanders 
will  agglutinate  a  whole  phrase,  inil- 
ertomiarpatdlAsarqbrpd,^  i.e.,  "he  will 
probably  try  too  much  to  get  it  done 
soon."    Among  languages  which  form 
grammatical   combinations   or  inflex- 
ion <«,  the  modes  of  so  doing  are  as 
various  as  possible.     Thus,  in  Africa, 
the  Hottentot  noun  forms  its   plural 
by  a  suffix,  as  khoi,  "  man  ; "  khoin, 
"men  ;  "  while  the  Zulu  employs  pre- 
fixes to  distinguish  its  numbers,  as 
umu-ntu,  "a  man;"  aba-ntu,  "men." 
The   Dinka  may  supply  examples  of 
forming  the  plural  by  internal  change, 
ran,  "  man  ,  "  ror,  *'  men."    Nor  are 
the  differences  of  syntax  in  different 
tongues  less  absolute.     In  non-inflect- 
ing languages  one  of  the   most  vital 
points  is  the  relative  position  of  two 
nouns,  of  which  the   one   stands  as 
substantive,  and  the  other  as  defining 
it  by  an  attribute.    This  may  be  illus- 
trated by  English  compounds,  such  as 
work-house  and  house-work.     Here  our 
rule    is    to  place  the   attribute-noun 
first,  while,  of  two  neighboring  lan- 
guages of  Asia,  the  Burmese  and  the 
Siamese,  the  one  settles  this  question 
in  our  way,  the  other  in  exactly  the 
opposite.    The    Siamese    expression 
for  sailors,  luk  rua,  means  "  sons  of 
the  ship,"  just  as  the  Burmese  expres- 
sion   for  villaj^ers,   rwa  tha,   meaiis 
"  children  of  the  village , "  but  in  the 
first  case  the  construction  is  "  sons 
ship,"   whereas  in  the  second  it  iu 
*•  village  ( hildren."    Again,  for    rea- 
sons not  yet  fully  explained,   some 


languages  place  the  adjective  before 
the    substantive,   as   Chinese  pe  ma, 
"  white    horse ; "     while    other    lan- 
guages reverse   this  construction,  as 
Maori,  rakau   roa,  "  tree  long "  {i.e., 
tall   tree).     These  are   but  examples 
of  possible   divergences  in  linguistic 
structure,  and  no  prudent  ethnologist 
would  assert  that  racirl  peculiarities 
have  nothing  to  do  with  such  various 
tendencies.     At  the  same  time,  there 
is   no  proof  but  that  they  may  have 
resulted  from  historical  circumstances 
mr  ^  or  less  independently  cf  race. 
Our  own  Aryan  family  of  nations  and 
languages   affords  what  must  always 
be  prominent  evidence  in  this  argu- 
ment.    It  is  acknovvledged  ihat  Sans- 
krit, Russian,  Greek,   Latin,   V/elsh, 
English,  etc.,  are,  philologically  speak- 
ing, dialects  of  a  single  Aryan  speech, 
which  no  doubt  at  some  ancient  period 
was  spoken  by  a  single  tribe  or  nation. 
Yet  the  languages  sprung  from  this 
original    Aryan    tongue,   by   various 
courses  of  development  and  accretion, 
are    mutually    unintelligible.     If    a 
Greek  sentence  be  taken  at  random, 

SL'Ch    as   this,  "  Oi)    xf^    wawvxiov    evSEii! 

^m'Kriipdpov  avdpa"  and  it  be  translated 
even  too  verbally  into  English,  "A 
counsel-bearing  man  ought  not  to 
sleep  all  night,"  the  traces  of  linguistic 
connection  between  uie  Greek  and 
English  words  (phoros,  bear;  nux, 
night)  are  hardly  perceptible  except 
to  philologists.  Even  the  essential 
character  of  the  two  languages  is 
seen  io  be  different,  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Greel;  sentence  depends 
mainly  on  the  inflections  of  the  words, 
while  in  English  such  inflections  are 
almost  discarded,  ?nd  their  effect  is 
produced  by  the  syntax  and  th^  auxil- 
iary particles.  Moreover,  as  to  some 
most  important  points  of  syntax, 
Aryan  languages  differ  widely  from 
one  another,  thus,  to  use  a  familiai: 
instance,  French  and  English  take 
contradictory  lines  as  to  the  relative 
position  of  the  adjective  and  substan- 
tive, as  also  of  the  object-pronouR 
and  verb, — "  c'est  un  chn)al  blanc,  je  le 
vois,"  "  it  is  a  white  horse,  I  see  him." 
So  Hindustani  and  English,  though 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


8S 


>» 


both  Aryan  tongues,  reverse  the  posi- 
tions of  the  verb  and  object,  as  "ghord 
lao  "  (*'  horse  bring  "),  i.e.,  **  bring  the 
horse ! "  Thus  on  the  whole,  the  end- 
less variety  in  vocabulary  and  struct- 
ure among  the  languages  of  the 
world  affords  important  evidence  as 
to  the  mental  diversities  of  the  na- 
tions speaking  those  languages.  But 
the  unity  of  the  faculty  of  speech  in 
man  stands  as  the  primary  fact,  while 
the  character  of  the  grammar  and 
dictionary  belonging  to  any  one  na- 
tion represents  only  a  secondary  fact, 
such  as  might  be  fairly  set  down  as 
resulting  from  their  particular  stage 
and  circumstances  of  linguistic  devel- 
opment. 

The  principles  of  the  development 
of  a  family  of  languages  from  a  single 
parent  tongue  are  laid  down  in  special 
treatises  on  Language.  It  has  here  to 
be  noticed  that  the  evidence  on  which 
such  linguistic  groups  may  be  treated 
as  allied  by  descent  is  of  various  de- 
grees of  fullness  and  strength.  The 
most  perfect  available  case  is  that  of 
the  Romance  languages,  comprising 
Italian,  Spanish,  French,  etc. ;  inas- 
much as  not  only  does  tlse  classic 
Latin  remain  substantially  the  repre- 
sentative of  their  common  original, 
but  the  very  stages  of  their  develop- 
ment from  it  are  preserved  in  docu- 
ments of  successive  ages.  Thus,  in 
comparing  the  vocabularies  of  Italian 
and  French,  it  is,  in  the  first  place, 
seen  that  they  to  a  great  extent  corre- 
spond,— this  correspondence  extend- 
ing to  words  which  one  language  is 
least  likely  to  borrow  from  another, 
viz.,  pronouns,  the  lower  numerals, 
and  names  of  the  most  universal  and  fa- 
miliar objects.  It  is  only,  however,  by 
etymological  analysis  that  their  depth 
of  correspondence  comes  fully  into 
viev/,  it  being  seen  that  the  ultimate 
elements  or  roots  are  largely  common 
to  the  two  languages,  as  are  also  the 
grammatical  affixes  by  which  words 
are  formed  from  these  roots,  while 
general  similarity  of  lingi'.istic  struct- 
ure pervades  both  tongues.  Such 
intimate  correspondence  could  only 
result  from  derivation  from  a  common 


parent  language,  which  in  this  case 
exists  in  Latin.  In  other  groups  of 
languages  the  existence  of  the  com- 
mon parent  may  be  inferred  from  cor- 
respondence of  this  highest  order. 
Thus  there  must  have  existed,  at  some 
period,  what  may  be  called  the  parent 
Slavonic,  whence  descend  the  Russian, 
Polish,  Bohemian,  etc. ;  and  the  par- 
ent Keltic,  whence  descend  Welsh, 
Gaelic,  Breton,  etc.,  while  behind  the 
various  branches  of  the  whole  Aryan 
family  are  dimiy  to  be  discerned  the 
outlines  of  a  primitive  Aryan  speech. 
In  like  manner,  a  comparison  of  the 
Arabic,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  etc.,  shows 
that  these  must  be  all  derived  from  a 
primitive  Semitic  speech,  containing 
mp.ny  of  the  simple  root  forms,  which 
still  exist  in  its  modern  descendants, 
and  being  already  characterized  by  the 
principle  of  internal  inflection.  Be- 
yond the  limits  of  these  two,  the  most 
important  linguistic  families,  various 
others  have  been  satisfactorily  made 
out,  though  hardly  with  the  same 
completeness  of  proof.  In  the  Tura- 
nian or  Tatar  family  are  included  the 
Turkish,  Mongol,  Hungarian,  Fin- 
nish, Ostyak,  etc. ;  the  Dravidian 
family  cakes  in  the  Tamil,  Telugu, 
and  various  other  South  Indian  dia- 
lects; the  Polynesian  family  com- 
orises  the  languages  of  the  higher 
race  of  the  South  Sea  Islands;  the 
Negro-Kafir  family  consists  of  the 
prefixing  languages  spoken  by  most 
African  tribes  from  the  equatorial  re- 
gions southward;  the  Guarani  family 
in  South  America,  the  Algonquin  and 
Athapascan  families  in  North  Amer- 
ica, and  the  Australian  *amily,  each 
includes  a  number  of  tribes  ranging 
over  a  vast  extent  of  territory,  and  so 
on.  As  to  smaller  divisions,  it  is 
common  for  languages  to  occur  in 
groups  of  several  connected  dialects, 
though  not  forming  part  of  one  of  the 
wider  linguistic  families;  thus  the 
Aztec  and  Nicaraguan  are  closely  re- 
lated dialects,  as  are  the  Quichua  and 
Aymara,  while  what  philologists  de- 
scribe as  isolated  languages,  as  the 
Basque  appears  to  be,  are  rather  iso- 
lated  groups   of   dialects,    with    no 


26 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


\ 


known   analogues  beyortd  a  limited 
district. 

If  the  present  state  of  the  philolog- 
ical classification  of  mankind  be  com- 
piared  with  that  of  half  a  century  ago, 
it'  will  be  seen  that  much  progi'ess 
has  been  made  in  referring  groups  of 
languages  each  to  a  common  ances- 
tral tongue.  At  the  same  time,  great- 
er cogency  of  proof  is  now  demanded 
in  such  classification.  The  metaod 
of  comparing  a  short  vocabulary  of 
twenty  words  or  so  in  two  languages  is 
now  abandoned,  for  where  an  exten- 
sive connection  really  exists,  this  is 
much  better  proved  by  a  systematic 
comparison,  while  a  few  imperfect  re- 
semblances in  the  two  lists  might  be 
due  to  accident,  or  the  adoption  of 
words.  Nothing  short  of  a  Similarity 
in  the  roofs  or  elements  of  two  lan- 
guages, as  well  as  in  their  grammat- 
ical structure,  too  strong  to  be  ex- 
plained by  any  independent  causes,  is 
how  admitted  as  valid  proof  of  com- 
mon descent.  This  I'mitation,  how- 
ever, by  no  means  amounts  to  a  de- 
nial of  the  possibility  of  such  descent. 
Thus  it  is  often  argued,  on  the 
strength  of  some  similarities  between 
Hebrew  and  Indo-European  roots, 
that  the  two  so  distinct  Semitic  and 
Aryan  fariiilics  of  language  are  them- 
selves sprung  from  some  yet  more  re- 
motely ancient  tongue.  Thus  also  it 
has  been  attempted  to  connect  the 
Malay  and  T.^tar  groups  of  languages. 
Either  or  both  of  these  opinions 
may  be  true ;  but  the  general  verdict 
of  philologists  is,  that  they  are  not 
satisfactCTily  made  out,  and  therefore 
cannot  be  recognized. 

Under  the  present  standard  of 
evidence  in  comparing  languages  and 
tracing  allied  groups  to  a  common 
origin,  the  crude  speculations  as  to  a 
Single  primeval  language  of  mankind, 
whic^  formerly  occupied  so  niuch  af- 
tentiori,  are  acknowledged  to  be  worth- 
less. Increased  knowledge  and  ac- 
curacy of  nrethod  Iiave  as  yet  only  left 
the  way  open  to  the  most  widely  diver- 
gent sujppositibns.  For  all  that  known 
dialects  prove  to  the  contrary,  on  the 
other  hand,  there  may  have  bieen  one 


p'rimttiv^  rahguage,  from  which  the 
descendant  languages  have  varied  so 
widely,  that  neither  their  words  nor 
their  formation  now  indicate  their  unity 
in  l6ng  past  ages,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  primitive  tongues  of  man- 
kind may  have  been  numerous,  and 
the  extreme  unlikeness  of  such  lan- 
guages as  Basque,  Chinese,  Peruvian, 
Hottentot,  and  Sanskrit,  may  arise 
from  absolute  independence  of  origin. 
The  language  spoken  by  any  tribe 
or  nation  is  not  of  itself  absolute  evi- 
de.xe  as  to  its  race-afKnities,  This 
is  clearly  shown  in  extreme  cases. 
Thus  the  Jews  in  Europe  have  almost 
lOsf  the  us6  of  Hebrew,  but  speak  as 
their  vernacular  the  language  of  their 
adopted  nation,  whatever  it  may  be  ; 
even  the  Jewish-German  dialect, 
though  consisting  so  largely  of  He- 
brew words,  is  philologically  German, 
as  any  sentence  Shows  :  "  Ich  hab  ncch 
hojotn  lo  geachelt"  "  I  have  not  yet 
eaten  to-day."  The  mixture  of  the 
Israelites  in  Europe  by  marriage  with 
other  nations  is  probably  much  great- 
er than  is  Acknowledged  by  them ; 
yet,  on  the  whole,  the  face  has  been 
preserved  with  extraordinary  strict- 
ness, as  its  physical  chafacteiistics 
Sufficiently  show.  Language  thus 
here  fails  conspicuously  as  a  test  of 
race,  and  even  of  national  history. 
Not  much  less  conclusive  is  the  case 
of  the  predominantly  Negro  popula- 
tions of  the  West  India  Islands,  who, 
nevertheless,  speak  as  their  native 
tongues  dialects  of  English  or  French, 
in  which  the  number  of  intermingled 
native  African  words  is  very  scanty  : 
"  Dem  httti  miti  na  ini  watra  bikasi 
dem  de  fisimah^^  **  "Irhey  cast  a  net 
into  the  water,  because  they  were 
fishermen."  (Surinam  Negro-Eng.) 
"  Bef  pas  ca  jamain  lasse  poter  cbnes 
It"  "  Le  bcer'f  ri'c  st  jalfnais  las  de 
porter  ses  corh^s."  (Haytian  Negro- 
Ff.)  If  it  I?e  objected  fhaf  the  lin- 
guistic conditions  oi  these  two  race$ 
are  mdre  artificial  than  has  been  usual 
ini  the  Kistbry  of  the  world,  less  tit- 
ixeme  cjfises  i)iiay  be  seen  in  coiihtnes 
where  tlfie  ordinary  results  of  cohquie^f- 
colohizatioh  have  taken  ptace.    The 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


27 


S^6stizos,  w^6  forth  sb  Targe  a  fraction 
of  the  p6pulation  of  rtt'oderh  Mexico, 
numbering  several  millions,  afford  a 
convenient  test  Iii  this  respect,  inas- 
much as  their  intermediate  complex- 
i6n  se^iarafes  them  frorh  both  their 
ancestral  races,  the  Spaniard,  and 
the  chocolate- b^ovfn  indigenous 
Aztec  or  other  Mexican.  The 
mother-tongue  of  this  mixed  race 
is  Spanish,  with  an  infusion  of  Mexi- 
can words ;  and  a  large  proportion 
cannot  sfpeak  any  native  dialect.  In 
most  or  all  nations  of  mankind,  cross- 
ing or  intermarriage  of  races  has  thus 
taken  place  between  the  v-onquering 
invader  and  the  Conquered  native,  so 
that  t^e  lairguage  spoken  by  the  na- 
tion may  represent  the  results  of  con- 
quest as  rtiuch  or  rrtbte  than  of  imces- 
tiy.  The  supersession  of  the  Keltic 
Cornish,  by  English,  and  of  the  Sla- 
ybrfic  Old-Prussian  by  German,  are 
b'tat  ekarhples  of  a  process  vl'hich  lias 
iof  untold  ages  been  supplanting  na- 
tive dialects,  #Ko'se  very  hanris  have 
mostly  disappeared.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  language  of  the  vi^arlike  in- 
vader or  peaceful  immigrant  may 
yield,  in  a  few  generations,  to  the 
tohgiie  of  the  mass  Cf  the  population, 
as  tnie  Ndrthm'an's  Was  I'eplaced  by 
i^ii-ertch,  arid  mOvdern  German  gives 
way  to  English  In  the  United  States. 
Judging,  thert,  fey  the  extirpation  arid 
adojition  of  iarigua'ges  \*ithin  the 
rarge  of  history,  it  iS  obvious  that  to 
classify  marikiri'd  intd  races,  Aryan, 
Semttic,  Turariian,  Pofyriesiari,  ^afir, 
etc.,  ori  the  mete  evidence  of  lan- 
guage, is  an  iritrifl^ic'ally  nrisound 
method.  From  the  earliest  tiriies  in 
which  nations  have  been  classified  by 
larigtiaores,  its  unrestricted  use  has 
vitiated  Sound  ethnology. 

Nevertheless,  under  prcper  restric- 
tioris,  Speech  affords  information  as 
i6  the  aflSriities  of  races  6rily  second 
in  vfiue  to  that  derived  f?oni  physical 
cHaraCtefisfticS.  A*  a  rrife,  language 
at  li^ast  ptoves  ^bme  ^rbpbftiori  6f 
a:ti6estry.  it  cduld  Hardly  l?iapj(eri 
IffeWt  tftfe  ^oblte  ^Kdtrfd  Cbtrie  ihto  io 
cfeSft  a  refitibn  fo  atibfher  : :  fb  sxip- 
^itht  ft§  fahgtitge,  mmm  tittoii^  in- 


termixture of  race  in  the  next  genera- 
tion.   This  is  true  in  the  extreme  case 
of  the  West   Indian   colored   popula- 
tion, among  whom  the  majority  are 
now  crossed  with  European  blood,  s6 
that  in  each   succeeding   generation 
the  proportion  of  absolutely  p"re  Ne- 
gro families  becomes  less.    Still  mbre 
fully  is '  it  true  of  colored   races  irt 
Mexico  or  Brazil,  whose  Spanish  of 
Portuguese     language   represents  at 
least  a  large   European   element   of 
ancestry.     Thus  in  India  many  mil- 
lions of  people,  Vi^hose  blood  is  pre- 
dominantly that  of  the  darker  indige- 
nous race,   nevertheless    speak   dia- 
lects of  the   languages  bf  the  fairer 
Aryans ;  but   "^hen   they  are   for   the 
most  part   distinctly  mixed  races  of 
partly  Aryari   ancestry.     With  these 
facts  before   us,  if  is  not  difficult  to 
determine  the  principles  on  whieh  the 
ethnologist  may  use  language  as  par- 
tial evidence   of  race.     In  the   nrSt 
place,  it  strengthens  the  evidence  bf 
bodily  characters.      Thus  in   South 
Africa  the  Zulu  ^eemS  by  color,  feat- 
ures, shape   of  skull,  etc.,  to  be,   if 
not  an  absblute  Negro  of  a  m.ixed  and 
modified  Negro  type.    This  view  of 
his  origin  is  strengthened  by  the  fact 
that  the  Zulu  langtrage  belongs  to  the 
peculiar  prefixing   fariiily  which  ex- 
tends so  widely  among  the  Negro  na- 
tions farther  north.     Sb  the  Hotten- 
tot language,  in  its  evident  connection 
with  that  of  the  Bushmen,  adds  iii 
weight  to  the  physical  arguriient,  that 
these  iwf  <  are  decendants  mbre  or  leis 
mixed  and  varied  frorii  a  single  race, 
small,  yellow,  crlsp-fraired,  and  speak- 
ing ari  inflectibrial  moriosyllabic  lan- 
guage, articulated  with  clicks.     In  the 
second  place,   lartgoage    may  prbve 
race-con riectibn  wheffe  bodily  charac- 
teristics, thorigh  they  do  riot  contradict, 
do  not  suffice.     Thu^,  comparing  the 
dairk  Aridalui^iari  with  tile  fair  Swede 
^e  ask  the  qiie^tfori,  whether  there  is 
distingulshabfe    cbmhibri    parentage 
betv^-ei^ri  tKissfe  fwb  varieties  of  the 
ifrhite   tHUtif     Th'e  ariafomi^t  might 
Hfeitfet^  herfe.    not,   irideetf,  i^  tKfe 
ph^tfc^  pfbbiehi  ft^^lfh  iblv'td,  M 
at  least  k  jiartial  sbliiticm  {i  ittirClvM 


28 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


in  the  philologist's  proof  that  the  two 
peoples  speak  languages  inherited  at 
some  remote  period  from  a  common 
Aryan  tongue,  and  must  therefore 
have  had  a  common  element  in  their 
ancestry  of  at  least  sufficient  strength 
to  carry  language  with  it.  Thus  each 
linguistic  family  affords  at  least  par- 
tial evidence  of  race,  proving,  for  in- 
stance, the  existence  of  a  common 
»,.»cestry  of  the  Irishman  and  the  Rus- 
sian, of  the  Jew  and  the  Maltese,  of 
the  Tahitian  and  the  Malagasy, 
though  in  such  pairs  of  races  the 
actual  amount  of  common  ancestry 
may  be  less  than  that  of  the  different 
race-elements  with  which  it  has  com- 
bined. 

As  regards  political  nationality  and 
the  history  of  civilization,  the  evi- 
dence of  speech  is  of  still  greater 
weight.  In  many  cases  of  the  mixt- 
ure of  nations  the  language  of  the 
dominart  civilization  prevails,  as 
where  Latin  dialects  superseded  the 
native  tongues  in  Western  Europe, 
and  Germanic  languages  encroached 
on  Turanian  in  Finland,  on  Slavonic 
in  Russia,  and  on  Keltic  in  the  Scotch 
Highlands.  In  other  cases,  where 
one  nation  has  received  elements  of 
civilization  frcui  another,  language  is 
apt  to  keep  record  of  the  process  by 
adopting  foreign  words  and  ideas  to- 
cether.  Thus  the  language  of  the  bar- 
barian Turks  has  absorbed  masses  of 
Arabic,  which  itself  had  in  like  manner 
absorbed  Persian,  when  Persia  was  the 
fountain-head  of  early  Moslem  culture. 
In  the  same  manner  Dravidian  lan- 
guages of  South  Irdia  have  been 
saturated  with  words  and  phrases 
from  Sanskrit  and  its  related  dialects, 
so  that  a  page  of  Tamil  literature  is 
of  itself  the  proof  of  a  non-Ayran  race 
having  received  from  <tn  Aryan  race 
a  whole  system  of  religion,  philosophy 
and  social  order.  The  most  extreme 
cases  of  such  verbal  indication  of 
foreign  influence  are  to  be  found  in 
languages  of  low  races  of  America  and 
the  Pacific,  which  have  adopted  from 
European  langviages  not  only  terms 
for  imported  arts  and  ideas,  but  names 
of  such  numerals  as  6  and   7,  pre- 


viously expressed  by  more  clumsy  na- 
tive combinations.  Thus  the  language 
of  any  people,  though  less  effect- 
ive than  was  once  believed  as  a  means 
of  determining  its  place  in  the  class- 
ified order  of  mankind,  does,  to  some 
extent,  indicate  its  physical,  and,  to 
a  still  greater  extent,  its  intellectual 
ancestry. 


VII. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   CIV- 
ILIZATION. 


The  conditions  of  man  at  the  low- 
est and  highest  known  levels  of  cult- 
ure are  separated  by  a  vast  interval ; 
but  this  interval  is  so  nearly  filled  by 
known  intermediate  stages,  that  the 
line  of  continuity  between  the  lowest 
savager)  and  the  highest  civilization 
is  unbroken  at  any  critical  point.  The 
Australians  and  forest  Indians  of 
Brazil  may  be  taken  a  the  lowest 
modern  savages  whose  thought  and 
life  have  been  investigiited  with  any 
thoroughness ;  while  other  less  ac- 
curately-studied tribes  are  in  some 
respects  inferior  even  to  these.  An 
examination  of  the  details  of  savage 
life  shows  not  only  that  there  is  an 
immeasurable  difference  between  the 
rudest  man  and*  the  highest  lower  an- 
imal, but  also  that  the  lea  t  cultured 
savages  have  themselves  advanced  far 
beyond  the  lowest  intellectual  and 
moral  state  at  which  human  tribesj 
can  be  conceived  as  capable  of  exist- 
ing, when  placed  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances of  warm  climate,  abund- 
ant food,  and  security  from  too  se- 
vere destructive  induences.  In  fact, 
the  Australian  or  Brazilian  savage 
has  already  attained  to  rudimentary 
stages  in  many  of  the  characteristic 
functions  of  civilized  life.  His  lan- 
guage, expressing  thoughts  by  con- 
ventional articulate  sounds,  is  the; 
same  in  essential  principle  as  the 
most  cultivated  philosophic  dialect, 
only  less  exact  and  copious.  His 
weapons,  tools,  and  other  appliances, 
such  as  the  hammer,  hatchet,  spear, 
knife,  awl,   thread,  net,  canoe,  etc.^ 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


29 


are  the  evident  rudimentary  analogues 
of  what  still  remains  in  use  among 
Europeans.  His  structures,  such  as 
the  hut,  fence,  stockade,  earthwork, 
etc.,  may  be  poor  and  clumsy,  but 
they  are  of  the  same  nature  as  our  own. 
In  the  simple  arts  of  broiling  and 
roasting  meat,  the  use  of  hides  and 
furs  for  covering,  the  plaiting  of  mats 
and  baskets,  the  devices  of  hunting, 
trapping,  and  fishing,  the  pleasure 
taken  in  personal  ornament,  the 
touches  of  artistic  decoration  on  ob- 
jects of  daily  use,  the  savage  differs 
m  degree  but  not  in  kind  from  the 
civilized  man.  The  domestic  and  so- 
cial affections,  the  kindly  care  of  the 
young  and  the  old,  some  acknowledg- 
ment of  marital  and  parental  obliga- 
tion, the  duty  of  mutual  defense  in  the 
tribe,  the  authority  of  the  elders,  and 
general  respect  to  traditional  custom 
as  the  regulator  of  life  and  duty,  are 
more  or  less  well  marked  in  every 
savage  tribe  which  is  not  disorganized 
and  falling  to  pieces.  Lastly,  there 
is  usually  to  be  discerned  among 
such  lower  races  a  belief  in  unseen 
powers  pervading  the  universe,  this 
belief  shaping  itself  into  an  animistic 
or  spiritualistic  theology,  mostly  re- 
sulting in  some  kind  of  worship.  If, 
again,  high  savage  or  low  barbaric 
types  be  selected,  as  among  the  North 
American  Indians,  Polynesians,  and 
Kafirs  of  South  Africa,  the  same  ele- 
ments of  culture  appear,  but  at  a  more 
advanced  stage,  namely,  a  more  full 
and  accurate  language,  more  knowl- 
edge of  the  laws  of  nature,  more 
serviceable  implements,  more  perfe  t 
industrial  processes,  more  definite  apd 
fiAcd  social  order  and  frame  of  gov- 
ernment, more  systematic  and  phil- 
osophic schemes  of  religion,  and  a 
more  elaborate  and  ceremonial  wor- 
ship. At  intervals  new  arts  and  ideas 
appear,  such  as  agriculture  and  pas- 
turage, the  manufacture  of  pottery, 
the  use  of  metal  implements,  and  the 
device  of  record  and  communication 
by  picture-writing.  Along  such 
stages  of  improvement  and  invention 
the  bridge  is  fairly  made  between 
savage  and  barbaric  culture  ;  and  this 


once  attained  to,  the  remainder  of  the 
series  of  stages  of  civilization  lies 
within  the  range  of  common  knowl- 
edge. 

The  teaching  of  hi-Aorj',  during  the 
three  to  four  thousand  /r.ars  of  which 
contemporary  chronicles  nave  been 
preserved,  is  that  civilization  is  grad- 
ually developed  in  the  course  of  ages 
by  enlargement  and  increased  precis- 
ion of  knowledge,  invention  and  im- 
provement of  arts,  and  the  progres- 
sion of  social  and  political  habits  and 
institutions  toward  general  well-be- 
ing. The  conditions  of  such  races 
as  the  older  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Ger- 
mans, are  known  to  us  by  ancient 
chronicles,  and  by  poetry  and  myth 
even  more  valuable  than  chronicle  in 
the  details  they  unconsciously  pre- 
serve of  the  state  of  society  at  the 
time  whence  they  have  been  handed 
down.  Starting  from  the  recorded 
condition  of  such  barbaric  nations, 
and  following  the  general  course  of 
culture  into  the  modern  world,  all 
the  great  processes  of  mental  and 
social  development  may  be  seen  at 
work.  Falling  back  or  decay  also 
takes  place,  but  only  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent destroys  the  results  of  growth  in 
culture.  It  is  thus  matter  of  actual 
record,  that  the  ancestovii  of  civilized 
nations  were  barbaric  tribes,  and  the 
inference  seems  reasonable  that  the 
same  process  of  development  had 
gone  on  during  previous  ages  outside 
the  domain  of  direct  history,  so  that 
barbaric  culture  itself  arose  out  of 
an  earlier  and  ruder  condition  of 
primitive  culture,  more  or  less  cor- 
responding with  the  state  of  modern 
savage  tribes.  The  failure  of  direct 
record  of  this  passage  from  savagery 
upward  to  barbarism  was  to  be  ex- 
pected from  the  circumstances  of  the 
case.  No  people  civilized  enough  to 
preserve  history  could  have  watched 
the  age-long  process  of  a  savage  tribe 
developing  its  culture ;  indeed,  expe- 
rience shows  that  independent  prog- 
ress could  hardly  have  taken  place 
among  an  uncivilized  in  contact  with 
a  civilized  race,  Nor  could  a  bar- 
baric nation,  though  it  had  really  and 


30 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


I  i 


^'  I 


H. 

hi 


independently  risen  from  savagery 
within  some  few  thousand  years,  give 
any  valid  account  of  this  gradual  ad- 
vancement, for  the  very  reason  of  its 
having  taken  place  while  the  nation 
was  yet  in,  or  but  little  removed  from, 
the  savage  state,  one  part  of  the  very 
definition  of  which  is  that  it  has  no 
trustworthy  means  of  preserving  the 
history  of  events  even  for  a  single 
century,  much  less  for  the  long  pe- 
riod required  for  so  vast  a  develop- 
ment. This  view  of  the  low  origin 
and  progressive  development  of  civ- 
ilization was  already  held  in  ancient 
times,  as  in  the  well-known  specula- 
tions of  the  Epicurean  school  on  the 
condition  of  the  earliest  men,  who 
roved  like  wild  animals,  seeking  their 
food  from  the  uncultured  earth,  till 
arts  and  social  laws  arose  among 
them  (Lucret.,  £>e  Rerum  Nat.,  v. 
923  ;  Horat.,  Sat.,  i.  3) ;  or  where 
the  like  idea  has  taken  in  China  the 
form  of  ancient  legend,  recording  the 
time  when  their  nation  was  taught 
to  use  skins  for  clothing,  to  make 
fire,  and  to  dwell  in  houses  (Pauthier, 
Livres  Sacris  de  r Orient,  p.  26.)  In 
opposition  to  such  views  of  primeval 
rudeness,  traditions  of  a  pristine 
state  of  human  excellence  have  long 
been  cherished,  such  as  the  "  golden 
age "  (Hesiod.,  Op.  et  Dies,  108). 
Till  of  late  wide  acceptance  has  been 
given  to  ai^juments,  partly  based  on 
theological  and  partly  on  anthropo- 
logical grounds,  as  to  man's  incapa- 
bility of  rising  from  a  savage  state, 
and  the  consequent  necessity  of  a 
supernatural  bestowal  of  culture  on 
the  first  men,  from  whose  high  level 
savages  are  supposed  by  advocates 
of  this  theory  to  have  degenerated. 
The  anthropological  evidence  ad- 
duced in  support  of  this  doctrine  is, 
hQwever,  too  weak  for  citation,  and 
even  obviously  erroneous  arguments 
have  been  relied  on  (see,  for  exam- 
ple, Archbishop  Whately,  Essay  on 
the  Origin  of  Civilization,  and  remarks 
on  its  evidence  in  Tylor,  Early  Hist, 
of  Man,  p.  163).  It  has  been  espe- 
cially the  evidence  of  prehistoric 
^chaeology  >vhich,    within    the    last 


few  years,  has  given  to  the  natural 
development-theory  of  civilization  a 
predominance  hardly  disputed  on 
anthropological  grounds.  The  stone 
implements,  which  form  the  staple 
proof  of  man's  existence  at  the  period 
of  the  river-drift,  are  of  extreme  rude- 
ness as  compared  even  with  ordinary 
savage  types,  so  that  it  is  obvious 
that  the  most  ancient  known  tribes 
were,  as  to  the  industrial  arts,  at  a 
low  savage  level.  The  remains  in 
the  caverns  justify  this  opinion,  espe- 
cially where  in  central  France  more 
precision  is  given  to  the  idea  ci  pre- 
historic life  by  the  discovery  of  bone 
weapons  for  hunting  and  fishing, 
which  suggest  a  rude  condition  re- 
sembling that  of  the  Esquimaux  (see 
the  preceding  section  V,,  Antiquity  of 
Man).  The  finding  of  ancient  stone 
implements  buried  in  the  ground  in 
almost  every  habitable  district  ol  the 
world,  including  the  seats  of  the 
great  ancient  civilizations,  such  as 
Egypt,  Assyria,  India,  China,  Greece, 
etc.,  may  be  adduced  to  show  that 
the  inhabitants  of  these  regions  had 
at  some  time  belonged  to  the  stone 
age.  This  argument  goes  far  to 
prove  that  the  ancestors  of  all  na- 
tions, high  and  low,  were  once  in  that 
uncultured  condition  as  to  knowledge, 
arts,  and  manners  generally,  which 
within  our  experience  accompanies 
the  Hse  of  stone  implements  and  the 
want  of  metals.  No  valid  refutation 
of  this  reasoning  has  been  offered, 
and  it  is  corroborated  by.  arguments 
to  be  drawn  from  study  of  the  facts 
of  civilization,  of  which  some  will  be 
here  mentioned  for  their  bearing  on 
the  theory  of  development. 

History  shows  how  development  of 
the  arts  takes  place  by  efforts  of  skill 
and  insight,  as  where  Phidias  rose 
above  the  clumsier  sculptors  of  the 
time  before  him,  or  where  the  earliest 
gnomon — a  mere  st?.ff  set  up  in  order 
to  have  its  shadow  measured — passed 
into  the  graduated  sun-dial ;  or  adap- 
tations of  old  contrivances  produce 
new  results,  as  when  the  ancient 
Pan's  pipes,  blown  by  a  bellows,  be- 
came   the   organ,  when  tjhe   earlier 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


81 


block-printing  led  up  to  the  use  of 
movable  types,  and  when  the  mag- 
netic-needle was  taken  out  of  the 
mariner's  compass  to  find  a  new  office 
on  the  telegraph-dial ;  or  lastly,  more 
absolutely  original  inventions  arise, 
the  triumphs  of  the  scientific  imagina- 
tion, such  as  the  pendulum  and  the 
steam-engine.  In  the  evolution  of 
science  the  new  knowledge  ever 
starts  from  the  old,  whether  its  re- 
sults be  >o  improve,  to  shift,  or  to 
supersede  it.  The  history  of  astron- 
omy extends  far  enough  back  to  show 
its  barbaric  stages,  when  the  earth 
was  regarded  as  a  flat  surface,  over- 
arched by  a  solid  dome  or  firmament ; 
and  when  not  only  was  the  sun  con- 
sidered to  move  round  the  earth,  but 
its  motions,  as  well  as  the  moon's, 
were  referred  to  the  guidance  and 
even  the  impulse  of  personal  deities. 
Beginning  with  this  first  stage  of  the 
science,  there  lies  before  us  the  whole 
record  of  the  exacter  observation 
and  closer  reasoning  which  have 
gradually  replaced  these  childlike 
savage  conceptions  by  the  most  per- 
fect of  physical  theories.  Thus, 
again,  the  history  of  medicine  shows 
improvement  after  improvement  on 
the  rude  surgical  appliances  and  the 
meager  list  of  efficient  drugs  which 
the  barbaric  leech  had  at  his  disposal, 
while  its  theory  has  changed  even 
more  absolutely  than  its  practice  ;  for 
medical  history  begins  with  the  an- 
cient world  holding  fast  to  the  savage 
doctrine  that  madness,  epilepsy,  fever, 
and  other  diseases,  are  caused  by 
demons  possessing  the  patient — a 
belief  which  is  still  that  of  half  the 
human  race,  but  which  it  has  been 
the  slow  but  successful  task  of  scien- 
tific pathology  to  supercede  in  the 
civilized  world.  In  like  manner,  the 
history  of  judicial  and  administrative 
institutions  may  be  appealed  to  for 
illustrations  of  the  modes  in  which 
old  social  formations  are  reshaped  to 
nieet  new  requirements,  new  regula- 
tions are  made,  and  new  officers  are 
constituted  to  perform  the  more  com- 
plete duties  of  modern  society,  while 
Icom  time  tp  time  institutions  of  past 


a^«s,  which  have  lost  their  original 
purpose,  and  become  obsolete  or 
hurtful,  are  swept  away. 

That  processes  of  development 
similar  to  these  had  already  been 
effective  to  raise  culture  from  the 
savage  to  the  barbaric  level,  two  con- 
siderations especially  tend  to  prove. 
First,  there  are  numerous  points  in 
the  culture  even  of  rude  races  which 
are  not  explicable  otherwise  thp»;  on 
the  theory  of  development.  Thus, 
though  difficult  or  superfluous  arts 
may  easily  be  lost,  it  is  hard  to  imag- 
ine the  abandonment  of  contrivances 
of  practical  daily  utility,  where  little 
skill  is  required,  and  materials  are 
easily  accessible.  Had  the  Austra- 
lians or  New  Zealanders,  for  instance, 
ever  possessed  the  potter's  art,  they 
could  'lardly  have  forgotten  it.  The 
inference  that  these  tribes  represent 
the  stage  of  culture  before  the  in- 
vention of  pottery  is  confirmed  by  the 
absence  of  buried  fragments  of  pot- 
tery m  the  districts  tney  inhablc 
(Lubbock,  in  Report  of  British  Asso- 
ciation^ r)undee,  1867,  p.  121).  The 
same  races  who  were  found  making 
thread  by  the  laborious  process  of 
twisting  with  the  hand,  would  hardly 
have  disused  if  they  had  ever  pos- 
sessed it,  so  simple  a  labor-saving  de- 
vice as  the  spindle,  which  consists 
merely  of  a  small  stick  weighted  at 
one  end;  the  spindle  may,  accord- 
ingly, be  regarded  as  an  instrument 
invented  somewhere  between  the 
lowest  and  i.ighest  savage  levels 
(Tylor,  Early  Hist,  of  Mankind,  p. 
193).  Again,  many  devices  of  civili- 
zation bear  unmistakable  marks  of 
derivation  from  a  lower  source ;  thus 
the  ancient  Egyptian  and  Assyrian 
harps,  which  differ  from  ours  in  hav- 
ing no  front  pillar,  appear  certainly 
to  owe  this  lemarkable  defect  to  hav- 
ing grown  up  through  intermediate 
forms  from  the  simple  strung  bow, 
the  still  used  type  of  the  most  prim- 
itive stringed  instrument  (Engel, 
Music  of  the  most  Ancient  Nations,  pp. 
17,  30.)  In  this  way  the  history  of 
numeral  words  furnishes  actual  prc^f 
of  that  independent  intellectual  prog- 


\ 


i 

i 


39 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


H 


ress  among  savag*^  tribes  which  sdme 
writers  have  rashly  denied.  Such 
words  as  hand,  hands ^  foot,  man,  etc., 
are  used  as  numerals  signifying  5, 
10,  15,  20,  etc.,  among  many  savage 
and  barbaric  peoples;  thus  Polyne- 
sian lima,  i.e.,  "  hand,"  means  5 ; 
Zulu,  taiisitupa,  i.e.,  "taking  the 
thumb,"  means  6 ;  Greenlandish,  ar- 
fersanek-pingasut,  i.e.,  "on  the  other 
foot  three,"  means  18 ;  Tamanac, 
te-vin  itoto,  i.e.,  "one  man,"  means 
20,  etc.,  etc.  The  existence  of  such 
expressions  demonstrates  that  the 
people  who  use  them  had  originally 
r.c  dpoken  names  for  these  numbers, 
but  once  merely  counted  them  by 
gesture  on  their  fingers  and  toes  in 
low  savage  fashion,  till  they  ob- 
tained higher  numerals  by  the  in- 
ventive process  of  describing  -n 
words  these  counting-gestures  (Tylor, 
in  Journal  Royal  Inst.,  March  15, 
1867  ;  Primitive  Culture,  chap.  vii.). 
Second,  the  process  of  "  survival  in 
culture  "  has  caused  the  preservation 
in  each  stage  of  society  of  phenom- 
ena belonging  to  an  earlier  period, 
but  kept  up  by  force  of  custom  into 
the  later,  thus  supplying  evidence'  of 
the  modern  condition  being  derived 
from  the  ancient.  Thus  the  mitie 
over  an  English  bishop's  coat-of-arms 
is  a  survival  which  indicates  him  as 
the  successor  of  bishops  who  actually 
wore  mitres,  while  armorial  bearings 
themselves,  and  the  whole  craft  of 
heraldry,  are  survivals  bearing  record 
of  a  state  of  warfare  and  social  or- 
der whence  our  present  state  was  by 
vast  modification  evolved.  Evidence 
of  this  class,  proving  the  derivation 
of  modern  civilization,  not  only 
from  ancient  barbarism,  but  beyond 
this,  from  primeval  savagery,  is  im- 
mensely plentiful,  especially  in  rites 
and  ceremonies,  where  the  survival 
of  ancient  habits  is  peculiarly  fa- 
vored. Thus  the  modern  Hindu, 
though  using  civilized  means  for 
lighting  his  household  fire,  retains 
the  savage  "  fire-drill  "  for  obtaining 
fire  by  friction  of  wood  when  what  he 
considers  pure  or  sacred  fire  has  to 
be  produced  for  sacrificial  purposes ; 


while  in  Europe  into  modern  times 
the  same  primitive  process  has  been 
kept  up  in  producing  the  sacred  and 
magical  "need-fire,"  which  was  light- 
ed to  deliver  cattle  from  a  murrain. 
Again,  the  funera'  offerings  of  food, 
clothing,  weapons,  etc.,  to  the  dead 
are  absolutely  intelligible  and  pur- 
poseful among  savage  races,  who  be- 
lieve that  the  souls  of  the  departed 
are  ethereal  beings,  capable  of  con- 
suming food,  and  of  receiving  and 
using  the  '.ouls  or  phmtoms  of  any 
objects  s'icrificed  for  their  use.  The 
primitive  philosophy  to  which  these 
conceptions  belong  has  to  a  great  de- 
gree been  discredited  by  modern 
science ;  yet  the  clear  survivals  of 
such  ancient  and  savage  rites  may 
still  be  seen  in  Europe,  where  the 
Bretons  leave  the  remains  of  the  All 
Souls'  supper  on  the  table  for  the 
ghosts  of  the  dead  kinsfolk  to  par- 
take of,  and  Russian  peasants  set  out 
cakes  for  the  ancestral  manes  on  the 
ledge  which  supports  the  holy  pict- 
ures, and  make  dough  ladders  to  as- 
sist the  ghosts  of  the  dead  to  ascend 
out  of  their  graves  and  start  on  their 
journey  for  the  future  world ;  while 
other  provision  for  the  same  spiritual 
journey  is  made  when  the  coin  is  still 
put  in  the  hand  of  the  corpse  at  an 
Irish  wake.  In  like  manner  magic 
still  exists  in  the  civilized  world  as  a 
survival  from  the  savage  and  barbaric 
times  to  which  it  originally  belongs, 
and  in  which  is  found  the  natural 
source  and  proper  home  of  utterly 
savage  practices  still  carried  on  by 
ignorant  peasants  in  our  own  coun- 
try, such  as  taking  omens  from  the 
cries  of  animals,  or  bewitching  an 
enemy  by  sticking  full  of  pins  and 
hanging  up  to  shrivel  in  the  smoke 
an  image  or  other  object,  that  similar 
destruction  may  fall  on  the  hated  per- 
son represented  by  the  symbol  (Tylor, 
Primitive  Culture,  chap,  i.,  iii.,  iv.,  xi., 
xii.;  Early  Hist,  of  Man,  chap.  vi.). 

To  conclude,  the  comparative  sci- 
ence of  civilization  thus  not  only  gen- 
eralizes the  data  of  history,  but  sup- 
plements its  information  by  laying 
down  the  lines  of  development  along 


ANTHROl'OLUGY. 


sa 


which  the  lowest  prehistoric  culture 
has  gradually  risen  to  the  highest 
modern  level.  Among  the  most 
clearly  marked  of  these  lines  is  that 
which  follows  the  succession .  of  the 
stone,  bronze,  and  iron  ages.  The 
stone  age  represents  the  early  condi- 
tion of  mankind  in  general,  and  has 
remained  in  savage  districts  up  to 
modern  times,  while  the  introduction 
of  metals  need  not  at  once  supersede 
the  use  of  the  old  stone  hatchets  and 
arrows,  which  have  often  long  con- 
tinued in  dwindling  survival  by  the 
side  of  the  new  bronze  and  even  iron 
ones.  The  bronze  age  had  its  most 
import-^nt  place  among  ancient  na- 
tions of  Asia  and  Euiope,  and  among 
them  was  only  succeeded  after  many 
centuries  by  the  iron  age ;  while  in 
other  districts,  such  as  Polynesia  and 
Jentral  and  South  Africa,  and  Anier- 
ica  (except  Mexico  and  Peru),  the 
native  tribes  were  moved  directly 
from  the  stone  to  the  iron  age  with- 
out passing  through  the  bronze  age 
at  all.  Although  the  three  divisions 
of  savage,  barbaric,  and  civilized  man 
do  not  correspond  at  all  perfectly 
with  the  stone,  bronze,  and  iron  ages, 
the  classification  of  civilization  thus 
introduced  by  Nilsson  and  Thomsen 
has  proved*  a  guide  of  extraordinary 
value  in  arranging  in  their  proper 
order  of  culture  he  nations  of  the 
Old  World.  Anoiher  great  line  of 
progress  has  been  followed  by  tribes 
passing  from  the  primitive  state  of  the 
wild  hunter,  fisher,  and  fruit-gatherer, 
to  that  of  the  settled  tiller  of  tb°  soil, 
for  to  this  change  of  habit  may  be 
plainly  in  g^'eat  part  traced  che  ex- 
pansion of  industrial  arts  and  the 
creation  of  higher  social  and  political 
institutions.  These,  again,  have  fol- 
lowed their  proper  lines  along  the 
course  of  time.  Among  such  are  the 
immense  legal  development  by  which 


the  primitive  law  of  personal  venge- 
ance passed  gradually  away,  leav- 
ing but  a  few  surviving  relics  in  the 
modern  civilized  world,  and  being  re- 
placed by  the  higher  doctrine  that 
crime  is  an  offense  against  society, 
to  be  repressed  for  the  public  good. 
Another  vast  social  change  has  been 
that  from  the  patriarchal  condition, 
in  which  the  unit  is  the  family  under 
the  despotic  rule  of  its  head,  to  the 
systems  in  which  individuals  make 
up  a  society  whose  government  i* 
centralized  in  a  chief  or  king.  In 
the  growth  of  systematic  civilization, 
the  art  of  writing  has  had  an  influence 
so  intense,  that  of  all  tests  to  distin- 
guish the  barbaric  from  the  civilized 
state,  none  is  so  generally  effective 
as  this,  whether  they  h.*ve  but  the 
failing  link  with  the  past  which  mere 
memory  furnishes,  or  can  have  re- 
course to  written  records  of  past  his- 
tory and  written  constitutions  of  pres-. 
ent  order..  Lastly,  still  following 
the  main  lines  of  human  culture,  the 
primitive  germs  of  religious  institu- 
tions have  to  be  traced  in  the  childish 
faith  and  rude  rites  of  savage  life, 
and  thence  followed  in  their  expan- 
eion  into  the  vast  systems  adminis- 
tered by  patriarchs  and  priests,  hence- 
forth taking  unaer  their  charge  the 
precepts  of  morality  and  enforcing 
them  under  divine  sanction,  while 
also  exercising  in  political  life,  an 
authority  beside  or  above  the  civil 
law.  These  illustrations  may  suffice 
to  make  it  clear  that  although  the 
science  of  culture  is  still  but  rudi- 
mentary and  imperfect,  it  indicates 
the  one  sound  and  indispensable 
method  for  the  study  of  human  arts 
and  institutions,  that  of  placing  each 
at  its  proper  r>tage  in  a  line  of  evolu- 
tion, and  explaining  it  by  the  action 
of  new  conditions  upon  the  previous 
stage  whence  it  was  derived. 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


Bv  E.  B.  TYLOR, 

AUTHOR  OF       THE  BARLV   HISTORY  OP  MANKIND,"   BTCt 


The  term  Archaeology,  like  that  of 
Antiquities,  has  been  employed,  until 
a  very  recent  period,  in  a  sense  so 
restricted  and  arbitrary  as  strikingly 
to  contrast  with  the  latitude  admissi- 
ble according  to  the  original  deriva- 
tion of  the  word.  Literally  it  signi- 
fies the, study  of  antiquity  or  ancient 
things ;  but  its  precise  significance 
has  been  determined  from  time  to 
time  by  the  range  of  study  and  re- 
search most  in  favor.  To  some  ex- 
tent it  has  always  been  recognized  as 
embracing  whatever  pei  ained  to  the 
early  history  of  .uiy  nation,  but  in  its 
details  it  was  applied  almost  exclu- 
sively to  the  study  of  Greek  and  Ro- 
man art,  or  of  classical  antiquities 
generally.  The  progress  of  geology, 
and  the  application  of  sound  princi- 
ples of  induction  to  the  study  of  prim- 
itive antiquities,  have  wrought  a  great 
revolution,  and  few  studies  now  rival 
arf,it.2ology  in  comprehensive  interest. 

Li  looking  at  the  succession  of 
stata  of  the  earth's  crust  it  was  as- 
sumed till  recently  that  the  student 
of  man  and  his  remains  is  limited  to 
the  latest  superficial  formation  of 
post-tertiary  strata.  To  the  palaeon- 
tologist was  assigned  all  ancient  ani- 
mal life  of  the  fossiliferous  strata, 
while  the  archaeologist  treated  of  man 
and  his  works  as  things  essentially 
distinct.  The  diverse  functions  of  the 
two  sciences  are  still  clearly  recog- 
nized; but  the  archaeologist^  is  no 
longer  supposed  to  be  excluded  either 
from  quaternary  or  tertiary  strata -in 
his  search  not  onlv  for  the  remains  of 
human  art,  but  for  the  osteological 


evidences  of  man's  presence  contem- 
poraneous h  the  fauna  of  such 
geological  periods.  One  class  of  ar- 
chaeologists, accordingly,  confidently 
anticipate  the  recovery  not  only  of 
works  of  art,  but  of  the  fossil  remains 
of  man  himself,  in  the  pliocene,  or 
even  the  miocene  strata.  So  far, 
however,  as  anj  reliable  evidence  can 
guide  opinion,  it  scarcely  admits  of 
question  that  neither  has  hitherto 
been  found  in  older  deposits  than  the 
later  tertiary,  or  quaternary. 

The  actual  remains  of  man,  the 
specific  form  of  his  osseous  structure, 
and  above  all  of  his  skull,  now  re- 
ceive the  minutest  attention  ;  and  the 
department  of  anthropology  to  which 
such  investigations  are  specially  as- 
signed has  latterly  acquired  a  fresh  , 
interest  from  the  inquiries  suggested 
by  iiovel  theories  as  to  the  possible 
evolutior,  of  man  from  lower  animal 
organizations.  Nevertheless,  the  re- 
searches of  the  paleontologist  and  of 
the  archaeologist  are  bas^d  on  essen- 
tially distinct  evidence.  The  life  of 
geological  periods  is  investigated  by 
means  of  the  fossil  bones  and  teeth 
which  alone  survive.  Or  if  to  these 
have  to  be  added  such  illustrations  of 
habits,  food,  and  structure  as  are  fur- 
nished by  means  of  footprints,  copro- 
lites,  and  the  like  subsidiary  evidence, 
still  all  are  traceable,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, to  the  living  organism.  Man, 
on  the  contrary,  in  times  altogether 
preceding  history,  is  chiefly  studied 
by  means  of  his  works.  Archaeology 
thus  forms  the  intermediate  link  1^ 
tween  geology  and  history,  though  the 


ARCli/tOLOUY. 


an 


reaction,  at  the  revival  of  learning  in  ! 
the  i6th  century,  which  tended  for  a 
tithe  to  subordinate  arts  and  science 
alike  to  classical  authority,  reduced  it 
within  greatly  narro*ver  liiriits.  Nev- 
ertheless, the  fitness  of  the  term  for 
the  most  comprehensive  definition  in 
relation  to  all  which  pertains  to  the 
past  could  not  be  entirely  overlooked, 
and  it  is  even  employed  repeatedly  by 
Dr.  Prichard  as  nearly  synonymous 
with  palaeontology.  In  this,  however, 
he  has  not  been  followed,  and  the 
name  is  now  universally  adopted  to 
designate  the  science  which  deduces 
the  history  of  man  tronv  the  relics  of 
the  past. 

The  innate  cravings  of  the  human 
mind  for  an  insight  into  the  future 
have  shaped  themselves  into  many 
forms  of  divination  and  astrology. 
But  this  desire  is  not  more  universal 
than  that  which  prompts  man  to  aim 
at  a  recovery  of  the  secrets  of  the 
past.  The  question  Whence?  even 
more  than  that  of  Whither  1  is  found 
to  give  shape  to  the  mythic  legends  of 
the  rude  barbarian,  and  to  constitute 
an  important  element  in  the  poetry 
and  mythology  of  efvery  nation's  oral 
and  written  history.  With  the  prog- 
ress of  society  such  indices  of  the 
past  are  subjected  anew  to  critical  an- 
alyses ;  and  we  accordingly  find  abund- 
ant Uaces  of  an  archaeological  spirit 
in  the  literature  of  every  civilized  na- 
tion. The  influence  of  the  same  crav- 
ing for  a  master^  of  the  past  is  seen 
adapting  itself  to  the  spirit  of  the  age 
at  every  epoch  of  great  progress. 
The  revival  of  art  and  letters  in  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries  was  signalized 
by  a  renewed  appreciation  of  Greek 
and  Roman  models;  and  while  the 
progress  of  opinion  in  the  i6th  cent- 
ury was  accompanied  by  an  abandon- 
ment of  mediaeval  for  classic  art,  the 
tendency  of  Europe  in  our  own  day, 
amid  many  elements  of  progress,  has 
been  singularly  corsentaneous  in  the 
return  not  merely  to  mediaeval  art, 
but  to  mediaeval  modes  and  standards 
of  thought,  and  in  the  attempt  to  at- 
tain to  higher  excellence  than  has 
been  yet  achieved  by  a  more  perfect 


development  of  the  ideal  of  the  mid- 
dle ages. 

The  alliance  of  archaeology  with 
geology,  and  the  direction  of  geolog- 
ical research  to  the  evidences  of  the 
antiquity  of  man,  have  largely  contrib- 
uted to  its  expansion,  until  in  its 
comprehensive  i  nity  it  embraces  the 
entire  range  of  human  progress  froTn 
the  infantile  stage  of  primeval  arts  to 
the  earliest  periods  of  written  recoi  Js. 
It  has  thus  been  developed  into  a  sys- 
*2matic  science,  by  ut;  h  the  intelli- 
gent investigator  is  e».i.!''  .d  to  pursue 
his  researches  with  the  aid  cf  evidence 
older  than  all  written  chronicles,  and 
to  recover  chapters  of  national  in- 
fancy and  youth  heretofore  deemed 
beyond  recall.  The  geologist,  with 
no  aid  from  written  records,  follows 
out  his  inquiries  through  successive 
periods  of  the  earth's  history,  and  re- 
veals the  changes  it  has  undergone, 
and  the  character  of  the  living  beings 
which  animated  epochs  of  the  globe 
ages  befol-e  man  was  called  into  be- 
ing. Beginning  with  the  traces  of 
life  in  the  primary  fossiliferous  strata, 
he  passes  on  from  system  to  system, 
disclosing  a  vast  succession  of  long 
extinct  life,  until  in  the  latest  diluvial 
formations  he  points  to  the  remains 
of  animals  identical  with  existing 
species,  and  even  to  traces  of  human 
art — the  evidence  of  the  close  of  geo- 
l0j;;ical  and  the  beginning  of  archaeo- 
logical periods.  Here  archaelogical 
science  ought  to  be  ready  to  take  up 
the  narrative,  and  with  a  more  com- 
prehensive minuteness  of  detail  and 
greater  certainty  as  to  the  conclusions 
arrived  at.  Such,  however,  until  very 
recently,  has  not  been  the  case.  The 
geologist  himself  long  confused  the 
records  of  the  transitional  period  by  • 
his  mistaken  reference  of  all  diluvial 
traces  to  the  Noachian  deluge ;  and 
when,  pausing,  as  he  thus  believed,  at 
the  dawn  of  the  historic  period,  he 
turned  to  the  archaeologist  for  the  sub- 
sequent chapters  of  the  history  of  iiffc 
on  our  globe,  it  was  only  to  receive  a 
record  of  Roman  traces  at  best  but 
meagerly  supplementing  the  minuter 
details  of  the  historian.    Nearly  the 


m 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


same  wrs  tiie  case  with  all  historic 
antiquity,  with  the  single  exception 
of  the  wonderful  monuments  oi  Egypt, 
which  preserve  to  us  the  records  of  a 
civilization  in  which  we  can  recognize 
the  origin  of  arts,  letters,  and  all  else 
to  which  the  culture  of  the  oluest  his- 
torical nations  may  be  traced. 

Nevertheless,  ihe  evidences  of  the 
primitive  arts,  and  the  traces  of  a  na- 
tive civilization  originating  among  the 
prehistoric  races  of  Europe,  had  been 
long  familiar  to  the  antiquary,  though 
he  failed  to  form  any  intelligent  con- 
ception of  their  significance  as  his- 
torical records.  Their  interpretation 
on  an  intelligent  and  systematic  prin- 
ciple is  mainly  due  to  the  archaeolo- 
gists and  ethnologists  of  Denmark 
and  Sweden,  who  from  their  very  geo- 
graphical positioi)  were  happily  freed 
from  the  confusing  element  of  classi- 
cal prejudices,  and  were  compelled  to 
seek  in  other  than  Roman  sources  an 
origin  for  the  abundant  traces  of  met- 
allurgic  art.  Zealous  British  coad 
jutors  speedily  caught  the  hint,  and 
freed  themselves  from  the  trammels 
which  had  so  long  narrowed  their 
aim ;  the  remains  of  primitive  art 
were  referred  to  true  sources,  or  at 
least  arranged  under  an  intelligent 
system  of  chronological  sequence  ; 
and  thus  the  desultory  and'  ofted  mis- 
directed labors  of  the  antiquary  have 
given  place  to  researches  character- 
ized by  scientific  accuracy. 

The  system  of  primitive  archfeology 
thus  introduced  has  since  been  mod- 
ified and  carried  out  into  ampler  de- 
tails, as  the  fruit  of  more  extended 
discoveries,  chiefly  effected  in  France 
and  England  ;  but  the  three  primary 
divisions,  the  Stone,  the  Bronze,  and 
the  Iron!  Periods,  are  still  retained. 
The  arrangement  is  warranted  alike 
by  evidence  and  by  its  practical  con- 
venience, though  later  research  has 
given  to  the  stone  period  a  compre- 
hensiveness undreamt  of  before,  and 
so  led  to  its  subdivision  into  two  ages 
of  prolonged  duration,  with  distinct- 
ive characteristics  of  primitive  art. 
(i.)  The  Stone  Period,  as  the  nanie 
implies,  It  that  in  which  the  rude  ab- 


original arts,  which  the  commonest 
necessities  of  man  call  into  operation, 
are  assumed  to  have  been  employed 
entirely  on  such  available  materials 
as  stone,  horn,  bone,  etc.  (2.)  The 
Bronze  Period  may  in  like  manner 
admit  of  subdivision,  though  the  term 
is  conveniently  employed,  in  its  most 
comprehensive  sense,  for  that  era  of 
progress  in  which  the  metallurgic  arts 
appear  to  have  been  introduced  and 
slowly  developed — first,  by  the  simple 
use  of  native  copper,  followed  by  the 
application  of  fire,  the  construction  of 
molds,  and  the  discovery  of  such 
chemical  processes  as  the  alloying  of 
copper  and  tin,  and  the  consequent 
production  of  the  beautiful  and  useful 
alloy  which  gives  name  to  this  the 
earlier  ^metallurgic  era.  (3.)  The 
Iron  Period  marks  the  era  of  matured 
metallurgic  arts,  and  the  accompany- 
ing progress  consequent  on  the  degree 
of  civilization  which  is  the  inevitable 
concomitant  of  such  a  state  of  things. 
While,  however,  those  divisions  hold 
good  in  their  general  application,  they 
must  not  in  every  case  be  applied  too 
rigidly.  The  archaologist  is  con- 
stantly recalled  to  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  researches  of  the  palaeon- 
tologist, as  dealing  with  the  traces  of 
organic  life,  anS  his  own  study  of  the 
works  of  a  rational  being  marked  by 
all  the  diversities  traceable  to  the 
reasoning  and  volition  of  the  individ- 
ual workman.  Local  facilities  have 
also  modified  the  arts  of  primitive 
man  in  various  ways.  In  some  local- 
ities, as  in  North  America,  pure  na- 
tive copper  abounds;  while  on  tne 
other  hand,  in  certain  districts  of  Af- 
rica iron  occurs  in  such  a  condition 
that  it  appears  to  have  been  wrought 
by  the  primitive  metallurgist  from 
very  remote  times. 

AH  those  periods  embrace  eras  con- 
cerning which  no  contemporary  writ- 
ten records  exist ;  and  in  relation  to 
most  of  them  nearly  as  little  is  known 
directly  as  of  the  older  periods  with 
which  the  geologist  exclusively  deals. 
It  need  not  therefore  excite  surprise 
that  the  process  of  induction  estab- 
lished on  this  basis  iias  been  chal- 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


87 


term 


lenged  by  historical  writers  of  high 
standing,  but  whose  exclusive  labors, 
on  the  records  of  periods  admitting 
of  documentary  evidence  and  charter 
proof  render  them  little  disposed  to 
sympathize  with  a  course  of  reasoning 
relative  to  the  hi  itory  of  man,  such  as 
has,  in  the  hands  of  the  geologist,  re- 
vealed so  much  in  relation  to  more 
ancient  life.  The  further,  however, 
that  research  is  pursued,  alike  into 
the  habits  of  living  races  of  savages, 
and  into  the  characteristics  of  the 
oldest  traces  of  primitive  art,  the  more 
clearly  does  such  a  process  of  devel- 
opment, from  the  first  rude  working 
in  stone  to  the  highest  arts  of  the 
skilled  metallurgist,  become  mani- 
fest. 

The  Australians,  the  Maories  of 
New  Zealand,  and  the  whole  widely- 
scattered  races  of  the  Polynesian  Isl- 
ands, the  Caribs  and  other  natives  of 
the  American  archipelago,  with  all  the 
nomade  tribes  of  the  New  World, 
from  Patagonia  to  the  Arctic  circle, 
were,  when  first  discovered,  without 
any  knowledge  of  the  metals  as  such, 
and  supplied  their  wants  by  means  of 
implements  and  weapons  of  stone, 
shell,  bon»,  or  wood.  The  civilized 
Mexicans  and  Peruvians,  on  the  con- 
trary, when  first  visited  by  the  Span- 
iards in  the  i6th  century,  were  famil- 
iar with  ine  working  of  copper  as  well 
as  gold, — though  totally  ignorant  of 
iron,  and  also  retaining  ior  common 
purposes  many  of  the  primitive  stone 
weapons  and  implements,  only  sub- 
stituting the  abundant  obsidian  of 
their  volcanic  region  for  flint.  Greece 
passed  from  its  bronze  to  its  iron  age 
within  the  period  embraced  in  its  lit- 
erary history  ;  and  the  mastery  of  the 
art  of  working  the  intractable  iron 
ore  is  traceable  with  tolerable  clear- 
ness in  the  early  history  of  Rome,  not 
very  long  before  it  came  in  contact 
with  the  trans-Alpine  barbarians. 
Among  most  of  the  Germanic  and 
Celtic  tribes  iron  appears  to  have  been 
already  known  when  they  first  came 
in  contact  with  the  aggressive  civili- 
zation of  the  south  ;  and  from  one  of 
them,  the  Norici  (in  whose  country. 


in  the  Austrian  valleys  of  the  Danube, 
this  metal  is  still  wrought  with  the 
highest  skill,)  there  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  the  Romans  acquired  the 
art  of  making  steel. 

If  history  is  only  to  begin,  as  that 
of  Britain  has  been  made  to  do,  with 
the  date  of  the  first  collision  with  in- 
vading Rome,  then,  no  doubt,  stone 
and  bronze  periods  are  as  meaning- 
less as  are  eocene  and  miocene  peri- 
ods to  the  geologist  who  assigns  the 
Mosaic  deluge  as  the  source  of  the 
earliest  phenomena    of  hia  science. 
To  those,  however,  who  are  willing  to 
follow  inducti'/C  reasoning  to  its  legiti- 
mate conclusions  it  must  be  apparent 
that  it  is  no  visionary  theory,  but  a 
system   founded  in    well-established 
truth,  which  ananges  the  archaeolog- 
ical records  of  primitive  history  and 
the  remains  oi  human  art  into  stone, 
bronze,  and  iron  periods.     Even  here, 
however,  an  important  distinction  in 
the  employment  of  such  materials  as 
a  basis  of  inductive  reasoning  indi- 
cates the  greatness  of  the  revolution 
involved  iu  the  introduction   among 
the   living  creatures  inhabiting  this 
earth  of  a  being  endowed  with  intelli- 
gence, and  supplementing  the  natural 
resources  of  animal  life  by  arts  even 
of  the  most  primitive  kind.     It  must 
indeed  be  born  in  remembrance  that 
geological  and  historical  chronology 
are  v!*ry  different  things,  and  that  the 
idea  implied  in  the  contemporaneous- 
ness of  strata  bears  a  very  slight  ap- 
proximation to  the  coincidence  o'  con- 
temporaneous events  and  productions 
of  an  historical  era.     The  doctrine  of 
geological  continuity  is  indeed  chal- 
lenged in  certain  respects  ;  but  on  the 
whole,  the  geological  formations,  with 
their  included  organic  remains,  may 
be  assumed  to  obey  a  natural  and  un- 
varying order ;    and  so,   within   the 
compass  of  geological  periods,  to  be 
of    contemporaneous    origin.      But, 
notwithstanding  certain  extreme  as- 
sumptions, based  on  the  theory  of  ev- 
olution, and  involving  the  consequent 
existence  of  man  in  remote  geolc^cal 
eras,  so  far  as  all  actual  evidence  can 
yet  guide  us,  it  is  correct  to  say  that, 


83 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


M 


geologically  speaking,  the  entire  his- 
tory of  man  is  embraced  in  one  peri- 
od.   But  in  the  works  of  art,  which 
form  the  bases  of  archaeological  in- 
duction, a  new  element — that  of  mind, 
or  the  reasoning  faculty,  along  with 
the  imitative  and  social  arts — is  intro- 
duced,  and  greatly  complicates    its 
subdivisions.     The   stone    period  of 
Britain   or  Denmark  is  analogous  to 
that  of  the  Polynesian  Islands.     So 
closely  do  their  tools  and  weapons  re- 
semble each  other  that  it  requires  a 
practiced  eye  tojdistinguish  the  stone 
axe  or  flint  lance-head  found  in  an 
ancient  British  barrow  from  imple- 
ments brought  by  some  recent  voy- 
ager from  the  islands  of  the  Southern 
Ocean.     Nor  could   the  most  experi- 
enced   archaeologist    undertake     in 
every  case  to    discriminate  between 
the  flint  arrow-head  dug  from  some 
primitive  barrow  of  undated  centuries 
before  the  Christian  era,  and  the  cor- 
responding weapon  brought  by  some 
recent  traveler  from  Tierra  del  Fuego 
or  regions  beyond  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains.     The   inference  is    therefore 
legitimate,  that  in  those  Polynesians, 
Fuegians,  or  Indians  of  the  North- 
West,  we  have  examples  of  tribes  in 
the  same  primitive  stage  as  were  the 
aborigines  of  Europe  durinc:  its  stone 
period.       Chronologically,    however, 
the  stone  period  of  Europe  and  that 
of  the  Pacific  islands  or  the  American 
continent  are  separated  by  thousands 
of  years.     In  like  manner,  the  bronze 
age  of  Mexico  was  undisturbed  by  all 
later  elements  when  first  brought  into 
contact  with  the  matured  civilization 
of  Europe  in  the  i6th  century,  while 
the  close  of  that  of  Britain  preceded 
the  ist  century  of  our  era.    The  same 
rule   is  applicable  to  the    primitive 
archaeol(^  of  all  countries;    and  a 
fertile  source  of  error  and  misconcep- 
tion has  already  had  its  rise  in  the  as- 
sumption  that   because  Greece   and 
Italy,  Germany,  Gaul,    Scandinavia, 
and  Britain,  have  all  had  their  primi- 
tive stone  and  bronze  periods,  there- 
fore the  whole  must  have  been  con- 
temporaneous.   It  cannot    therefore 
be  too  strongly  enforced  as  one  of  the 


most  essential  points  of  variance  in 
the  reasoning  of  the  geologist  and  the 
archaeologist,  that  the  periods  of  the 
latter,  'tiough  synonymous,  are  not 
necessarily  synchronous ;  but  that,  on 
the  contrary,  nearly  all  the  phenom- 
ena which  pertain  to  the  natural  his- 
tory of  man,  and  to  the  historic  devel- 
opment of  the  race,  may  be  witn'^ssed 
in  their  various  stages  in  contempo- 
rary races  of  our  own  day — from  ru- 
dimentary barbarism,  and  the  absence 
of  all  arts  essential  to  the  first  dawn 
of  civilization  to  a  state  of  greatest 
advancement  in  the  knowledge  and 
employn.cnt  of  such  arts. 

Some  progress  has  already  been 
made  in  an  approximation  to  certain 
chronological  data  of  much  import- 
a  vce  >.  'tive  to  such  primitive  peri- 
o  >  t  uie  history  of  nations.  But 
the  archaeologist,  as  well  as  the  geolo- 
gist, is  learning  to  deal  with  periods 
of  time  which  cannot  always  be 
measured  either  by  years  or  centuries, 
but  rather  must  be  gauged  by  those 
chronological  stages  in  the  history  of 
our  planet  in  which  epochs  and  peri- 
ods take  the  place  of  definite  subdi- 
visions of  solar  time.  Nevertheless, 
geological  evidence  of  changes  which 
are  known  to  have  occurred- within 
the  historic  period  supplies  an  im- 
portant key  to  the  approximate  dura- 
tion of  certair  .'?  characterized  by 
traces  of  hu  t;  and  while  by 

the  intelligeni  i  ration  of  such  re- 

mains in  the  sl.^  '■'  al  strata,  ming- 
ling with  the  foss.li  .evidences  of  ex- 
tinct and  familiar  species  of  animal 
life,  the  link  is  supplied  by  which 
man  takes  his  place  in  an  unbroken 
chain  of  creative  existence,  sweeping 
back  into  so  re  lote  a  past,  the  evi- 
dences of  matured  art  pertaining  to 
periods  unrecorded  by  history  supply 
later  links  of  the  same  chain,  and 
reunite  the  present  with  all  former 
ages. 

The  system  of  primitive  archaeology 
which  is  found  applicable  to  British 
antiquities  so  closely  corresponds  in 
all  its  essential  features  to  that  of 
Europe  prior  to  the  era  of  authentic 
history,  that  the  purpose  of  such  an 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


abstract  as  this  will  be  most  conven- 
iently accomplished  by  presenting  its 
leading  points  as  examples  of  the 
whole,  illustrating  these  in  passing 
by  the  analogous  remains  discovered 
in  other  countries.  The  apparent 
simplicity  of  a  primitive  stone  period 
has  been  considerably  ;nodified  by 
recent  research;  and  the  careful 
study  of  the  remains  of  ancient  art, 
in  their  relation  to  accompanying 
geological  phenomena,  or  of  the  evi- 
dences of  artificial  deposition  in  caves, 
barrows,  chambered  cromlechs,  cairns, 
or  other  sepulchral  structures,  sug- 
gests the  subdivision  of  prehistoric 
archaeology  into  a  succession  of 
epochs  included  within  the  period  of 
nonmetallurgic  arts. 

But  before  defining  the  archaeolog- 
ical rubdivisibns  of  time  it  is  indis- 
pensable to  glance  at  the  palaeonto- 
logical  elements  of  the  question,  and 
the  evidences  they  supply  in  relation 
to  comparative  chronology.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  phenomena  af- 
fecting the  conditions  of  life  in  Eu- 
rope in  recent  geological  epochs  is 
the  existence  of  a  period,  of  long 
duration  throughout  the  northern 
hemisphere,  of  a  temperature  resem- 
bling that  of  the  Arctic  regions  at  the 
present  time.  After  a:  period  more 
nearly  approximating  in  its  conditions 
the  heat  of  the  tropics  at  the  present 
day,  though  otherwise  under  varying 
states  toward  the  end  of  the  tertiary 
epoch  the  temperature  of  the  whole 
northern  hemisphere  gradually  dimin- 
ished, until  the  mountainous  regions 
of  Scotland  and  Wales — then  prob- 
ably of  a  much  higher  elevation — 
resembled  Greenland  at  the  present 
time ;  and  this  Arctic  temperature 
gradually  extended  southward  to  the 
Alps  and  the  Pyrenees.  The  glaciers 
formed  under  the  influence  of  perpet- 
ual frost  and  snow  descended  from 
those  and  other  mountains  into  the 
valleys  and  plains  over  the  greater 
portion  of  central  Europe  and  north- 
em  Asia ;  and  this  condition  of  things, 
pertaining  to  what  is  known  as  the 
glacial  period^  was  one  of  greatly  pro- 
longed duration. 


After  some  partial  modifications  of 
this  low  temperature,  and  a  conse- 
quent advance  and  retrocession  of  the 
glacial  influences  in  France  and  else- 
where, along  what  was  then  the  bor- 
der lines  of  a  north  temperate  zone, 
the  glacial  period  drew  to  a  close ;  a 
gradual  but  persistent  rise  of  temper- 
ature carried  the  lines  of  ice  and  per- 
petual snow  further  and  further  north- 
ward, excepting  in  regions  of  great 
elevation,  as  in  the  Swiss  Alps.  This 
was  necessarily  accompanied  by  the 
melting  of  the  vast  glaciers  accumu- 
lated in  the  mountain  valleys  through- 
out the  protracted  period  of  cold. 
The  broken  rocks  and  soil  of  the 
highlands  were  swept  into  the  valleys 
by  torrents  of  melted  ice  and  snow ; 
the  lower  v  ;lleys  were  hollowed  out 
and  re-formed  under  this  novel  agent ; 
and  the  landscape  received  its  present 
outlines  of  valley,  estuary,  and  river- 
beds from  the  changes  wrought  in 
this  diliivian  epoch.  The  enormous 
power  of  the  torrents  thus  acting  con- 
tinuously throughout  a  period  of  pro- 
longed duration,  and  the  vast  deposits 
of  sand,  gravel,  and  clay,  with  the 
embedded  remains  of  contempora- 
neous animal  and  vegetable  life  with 
which  they  every>vhere  covered  the 
plains,  were  viewed  till  recently  solely 
in  relation  to  the  Mosaic  narrative  of 
a  universal  deluge,  and  were  referred 
implicitly  to  that  source.  But  recent 
though  the  epoch  is  when  compared 
with  older  geological  periods,  its  an- 
tiquity is  enormous  in  relation  to  his- 
toric chronology ;  and  instead  of  be- 
ing the  product  of  a  sudden  cataclysm 
of  brief  duration,  it  represents  phe- 
nomena which  required  a  period  of 
long  protracted  'centuries  for  their 
evolution. 

Within  this  late  tertiary,  or  quater- 
nary, period  are  found  the  remains  of 
animal  life  contemporary  with  prime- 
val man  and  his  earliest  arts.  The 
very  characteristics  of  some  of  the 
fossil  mammals  of  the  period,  so  di- 
verse from  all  that  ^e  have  been  &c- 
customod  to  associate  with  man,  help 
to  suggest  ideas  of  even  an  exagger- 
ated antiquity  for  the  era  to  which 


40 


ARCHi«:OLOGY. 


they  are  assignable,  and  to  relegate 
it  to  the  remotest  conceivable  antiq- 
uity consistent  with  all  other  evidence 
of  the  oldest  traces  of  man  or  his 
arts  seemingly  contemporaneous  with 
them.  Of  those  now  wholly  extinct, 
the  mammoth  or  Elephas  ptimigenius, 
the  Elephas  antiq'ms,  the  Rhinoceros 
tichorinus^  the  Hippopotamus  major, 
and  such  great  cave  carnivora  as  the 
Ursus  spelcEus  and  the  Felis  spelaa,  are 
most  noticeable  for  their  great  size, 
and  in  some  cases  for  their  enormous 
destructive  powers,  in  striking  con- 
trast to  the  seemingly  helpless  condi- 
tion of  prirriitive  man.  Yet  even 
some  of  those  formidable  mammalia 
probably  owed  their  extinction  fully 
as  much  to  the  }  resence  of  man  as  to 
any  change  in  temperature  and  con- 
sequent alteration  in  the  required 
conditions  of  climate  and  habitat. 
We  are  accustomed  to  regard  the 
lion,  tiger,  leopard,  panther,  and 
others  of  the  great  Felidcs  as  pertain- 
ing exclusively  to  tropical  countries. 
They  are  in  reality^Iimited  to  tropical 
jungles  and  uncultivated  regions  of 
great  extent,  where  the  abundance  of 
wild  vegetable-feeding  animals  sup- 
plies their  food.  The  existence  of 
neither  is  compatible  with  the  pres- 
ence of  man  in  any  great  numbers ; 
but  in  his  absence  those  beasts  of 
prey  greatly  extend  their  range.  The 
Indian  tiger  not  only  follows  the  ante- 
lope and  deer  in  the  Himalayan  chain 
to  t*^*^  verge  of  perpetual  snow,  but 
the  tiger,  leopard,  panther,  and  chee- 
tah hunt  their  prey  beyond  that 
mountain  range,  even  into  Siberia, 

The  influence  of  man  in  the  extir- 
pation of  the  wild  fauna  is  illustrated 
by  another  class  of  extinct  animals  of 
many  historical  regions,  which  yet 
survive  in  more  favorable  localities. 
The  discovery  of  abundant  evidence 
of  a  period  in  the  history  of  central 
and  southern  France  when  the  rein- 
deer {Cervus  tarandus)  formed  one  of 
the  chief  sources  both  for  the  food  of 
man  and  fot  the  materials  from  which 
his  weapons  and  implements  were 
made,  seems  to  carry  us  back  to  an 
era  inconceivably  remote,  when  cen- 


tral France  was  in  the  condition  of 
Lapland  in  medieval  or  still  earlier 
centuries.  But  the  climate  of  North 
Britain  is  not  even  now  incompatible 
with  the  existence  of  the  reindeer, 
and  iti,  favorite  moss  abounds  in 
many  parts  of  the  Highlands.  It 
need  not  therefore  surprise  us  to  learn 
that  traces  of  the  reindeer  are  by  no 
means  rare  in  Scotland  ;  and  numer- 
ous examples  of  its  horns  have  re- 
cently been  recovered  in  more  than 
one  Caithness  locality,  with  the  marks 
of  sawing  and  cutting  for  artificial 
use,  and  lying  among  other  remains 
in  stone-built  structures  of  a  primitive 
population  of  North  Britain.  How 
old  they  are  may  not  be  strictly  de- 
terminable, but  they  help  us  to  the 
acceptance  of  a  very  modern  date  for 
the  presence  of  the  reindeer  there ; 
for  Torfseus  states  that  so  recently  as 
the  twelfth  century  the  Jarls  of  Ork- 
ney were  wont  to  cross  the  Pentland 
Firth  to  chase  the  roe  and  the  rein- 
deer in  the  wilds  of  Caithness.  At 
the  same  date  also  we  find  the  skin 
of  the  beaver  .ated  for  customs  duties 
amongst  articles  of  Scottish  export 
specified  in  an  Act  of  the  reign  of 
David  I. 

Another  very  characteristic  animal 
pertaining  to  the  prehistoric  era  of 
European  man  is  the  Megaceros  Hiber- 
nicus,  or  gigantic  Irish  elk.  Its  bones 
occurred  with  those  of  the  Elephas 
primigenius,  the  Rhinoceros  tichorinus, 
the  Ursus  spelaus,  and  other  extinct 
mammals,  alongside  of  human  re- 
mains and  works  of  art,  in  the  famous 
Aurignac  cave  of  the  Pyrenees ;  and 
in  the  recently-explored  Brixham  cave, 
on  the  Devonshire  coast,  similar  re- 
mains of  the  fossil  rhinoceros,  horse, 
and  reindeer,  as  well  as  of  several  ex- 
tinct carnivora,  lay  embedded  in  the 
same  breccia  with  flint  knives.  And 
not  only  have  the  horns  and  bones  of 
the  Megaceros  Hibernicus  been  recov- 
ered from  Irish  bogs  and  marl-pits, 
with  marks  of  artificial  cutting,  but  a 
rude  Irish  lyre,  found  in  the  moat  of 
Desmond  Ca.stle,  Adare,  has  been  pro- 
nounced by  Professor  Owen  to  be  made 
from  the  bone  of  this  extinct  deer. 


ARCHiEOLOGY. 


.  So  is  it  with  the  ancient  Bovidce^ 
not  only  adapted  for  the  chase,  but 
suitable  for  domestication ;  such  as 
the  Bos  primigenius,  the  Bos  longi- 
/rons,  and  the  Bison  prisms.  Their 
remains  have  been  found  in  submarine 
forests,  or  mingling  in  the  drift  or 
cave  deposits  with  the  Elephas  prim- 
igenius,  the  Felis  spelaa,  and  others  of 
the  most  gigantic  fossil  mammals  ; 
while  abundant  traces  reveal  their 
existence  not  merely  contemporaneous 
with  man,  but  within  definite  histori- 
cal periods. 

The  great  alluvial  valley  of  the 
river  Forth  has  yielded  another  class 
of  relics  connecting  the  gigantic  fossil 
mammalia  of  a  prehistoric  epoch  with 
man.  The  disclosures  of  the  Carse 
of  Falkirk  have  repeatedly  included 
remains  of  the  Elephas  primigenius : 
and  in  at  least  one  case  its  tusks 
were  found  in  such  perfect  condition 
as  to  be  available  for  the  ivory-turner, 
though  lying  embedded  at  a  depth  of 
20  feet  in  the  boulder  clay.  But  in 
the  neighboring  valley  of  the  Forth 
the  tussil  whale  {Balanopterd)  has  net 
only  beeti  repeatedly  found  far  in- 
land, buried  in  the  alln  lal  soil,  at 
levels  varying  from  20  to  25  feet  above 
high-water  mark,  but  in  at  least  two 
instances  the  rude  lance  or  harpoon 
of  deer's  horn  lay  alongside  of  the 
skeletons ;  and  near  another  of  them 
were  found  pieces  of  stag's  horn, 
artificially  cut,  and  one  of  them  per- 
forated with  a  hole  about  an  inch  in 
diameter.  Flint  implements,  an  oak- 
en quern,  and  other  ingenious  traces 
of  primitive  art,  recovered  from  the 
same  alluvial  soil,  all  tell  of  a  time 
when  the  British  savage  hunted  the 
whale  in  the  shallows  of  a  tide  at  the 
base  of  the  Ochil  hills,  now  between 
20  and  30  feet  above  the  highest  tides 
and  7  miles  distant  from  the  sea. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  whale  from  the  British 
shores,  like  the  reindeer  from  its 
northern  valleys,  is  due  far  more  to 
the  presence  of  man  than  to  any 
change  of  temperature  so  greatly 
affecting  the  conditions  of  life  as  to 
involve  their  extinction.    Neverthe- 


less it  is  convenient  to  recognize  in 
the  disappearance  of  such  emigrant 
species  fr.om  the  historic  areas  the 
close  of  the  palaeontological  age. 
The  Urus,  the  Aurochs,  the  Bos 
longi/rons,  or  native  ox  of  the  Roman 
period,  and  others  of  that  important 
class  of  animals  which  man  first  be- 
gan to  turn  to  account  for  domestica- 
tion, have  also  ceased  to  exist  among 
European  fauna  ;  but-  this  is  cl'^arly 
traceable  to  the  destructive  presence 
of  man.  Within  three  or  four  cent- 
uries the  Urus  {Bos primigenius)  was 
still  known  in  Germany  ;  the  Aurochs 
{Bos  priscus)  is  even  now  preserved 
under  special  protection  in  Lithuania ; 
and  herds  of  British  wild  cattle  in 
Cadzow  forest,  Lanarkshire,  and  at 
Chillingham  Park,  Northumberland, 
perpetuate  varieties  otherwise  extinct. 

Reverting,  then,  to  the  classifica- 
tion which  prehistoric  archaeology  ad- 
mits of,  in  the  ligiit  of  its  most  recent 
disclosures,  it  app'^ars  to  be  divisible 
into  four  distinct  epochs,  of  which  the 
first  two  embrace  successive  stages  of 
^h'^  age  of  stone  implements. 

I.  The  Paleolithic  Period  is  that 
which  has  also  been  designated  the 
Drift  Period.  The  troglodytes,  or 
cave-dwellers,  of  this  primitive  era 
were  to  all  appearance  contempora- 
neous with  the  mammoth,  the  woolly- 
haired  rhinoceros,  and  the  great  cave 
carnivora  already  named.  In  Eng- 
land, France,  Belgium,  and  other 
countries  of  Euro^^e,  numerous  caves 
have  been  explored  which  were  un- 
doubtedly the  habitations  and  work- 
shops of  the  men  of  this  jieriod. 
These  caverns  vary  in  character  and 
dimensions  according  to  the  geolog- 
ical features  of  the  localities  where 
they  occur ;  but  all  alike  involve  the 
simple  feature  of  recesses,  more  or 
less  ample,  affording  comparatively 
dry  and  commodious  shelter,  and  so 
being  resorted  to  as  places  of  habita- 
tion alike  by  wild  animals  and  by  man 
himself.  But  the  most  valuable  for 
the  purposes  of  the  archaeologist  are 
a  class  of  caverns  which  occur  in 
limestone  districts,  and  which,  from 
the  combined  mechanical  action  of 


48 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


f"  ■ 

J;,  t 


the  water  operating  on  a  rock  easily 
eroded,  and  its  chemical  action  when 
charged  with  a  certain  amount  of 
carbonic  acid  in  dissolving  the  cal- 
careous rock,  are  found  expanded 
into  long  galleries  and  chambers  ot 
large  dimensions  There  the  same 
chemical  agents,  acting  under  other 
circumstances,  have  dissolved  the 
limestone  rock,  and  sealed  up  the 
ancient  flooring  at  successive  .inter- 
vals, thereby  furnishing  a  test  of  the 
duration  of  long  periods  of  alternate 
action  and  repose,  and  yielding  evi- 
dence of  the  most  indisputable  kind 
as  to  the  order  of  succession  of  the 
various  deposits  and  their  included 
bones  and  implements. 

In  Belgii  m,  at  Dordogne,  and  in 
some  parts  of  the  south  of  France, 
the  caves  and  rock-recesses  are  of  a 
much  simpler  character.  Yet  there 
also  favoring  circumstances  have  pre- 
served contemporary  deposits  of  the 
ancient  cave-dwellers,  their  works  of 
art,  the  remains  of  their  food,  and 
even  their  cooking  hearths. 

The  caves  of  the  drift  period  ac- 
cordingly present  peculiarly  favorable 
conditions  for  the  study  of  the.  post- 
pliocene  period.  Some  of  these  cav- 
erns were  evidently  first  occupied  by 
the  extinct  carnivora  of  that  period, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  famous  Kent's 
Hole  Cave  of  Devonshire,  of  which 
the  lowest  deposit  is  a  breccia  of 
water-worn  rock  and  red  clay,  inter- 
spersed with  numerous  bones  of  the 
Ursus  speiaus,  or  great  cave-bear. 
Over  this  a  stalagmitic  flooring  had 
been  formed,  in  some  places  to  a 
depth  of  several  feet,  by  the  long- 
protracted  deposition  of  carbonate  of 
lime  held  in  solution  in  the  drippings 
from  the  roof.  Above  this  ancient 
flooring,'  itself  a  work  of  centuries, 
later  floods  had  superimposed  a  thick 
layer  of  "cave-earth,"  in  some  cases 
even  entirely  filling  up  extensive  gal- 
leries with  a  deposit  of  drift-mud  and 
stones,  within  which  are  embedded 
the  evidences  of  contemporaneous 
life — ^bones  and  teeth  of  the  fossil 
elejAant,  rhinoce  ros,  horse,  cave-bear, 
byiena,  reindeer,  and  Irish  eik ;  and 


along  with  these,  numerous  weapons 
and  implements  of  chipped  flint,  horn, 
and  bone — the  unmistakable  proofs 
of  the  presence  of  man.  These, 
again,  have  been  sealed  down,  in 
another  prolonged  period  of  rest,  by 
a  new  flooring  of  stalagmite ;  and 
thus  the  peculiar  circumstances  of 
those  cave  deposits  render  them  spe- 
cially favorable  for  the  preservation 
of  a  coherent  record  of  the  period. 
Here  are  the  evidences  of  the  animal 
life  contemporaneous  with  the  mert 
of  the  caves  during  the  drift  period  ; 
here  also  are  many  of  their  smaller 
flint  implements — the  flint-cores  and 
the  chips  and  flint-flakes,  showing 
where  their  actual  manufacture  was 
carried  on  ;  and  the  lances,  bodkins, 
and  needles  of  bone,  which  could 
only  have  been  preserved  under  tuch. 
favoring  circumstances. 

But  besides  the  actual  deposits  in 
the  caves,  the  river  gravels  of  the 
same  period  have  their  distinct  dis-* 
closures.  The  spear-heads,  discs,, 
scrapers,  and  other  large  implements 
of  chipped  flint  are  of  rare  occurrence 
in  the  cave  breccia.  Their '  size  was 
sufficient  to  prevent  their  being 
readily  dro^t  and  buried  beyond 
reach  of  recovery  i  the  muddy  floor- 
ing of  the  o  d  cave  dwelling ;  and  the 
same  cause  preserved  them  from  de- 
struction when  exposed  to  the  violence 
involved  in  the  accumulation  of  the 
old  river  drifts.  In  the  north  oi: 
France,  and  in  England  from  Bed- 
fordshire southward  to  the  English 
Channel,  in  beds  of  ancient  gravel, 
sand,  and  clay  of  the  river  valleys, 
numerous  discoveries  of  large  flmt 
implements  have  been  m^de — ^from 
the  year  1797,  when  the  fin^^t  noted 
flint  implements  of  the  drivt  were 
discovered  in  the  same  stratified 
gravel  of  Hoxne,  in  Suffolk,  in  which 
lay  bones  of  the  fossil  elephants  and 
other  extinct  mammalia.  The  char* 
acteristics  of  the  river-drift  imple- 
ments, as  well  as  of  the  whole  art 
of  the  stone  age,  have  been  minutely 
described  and  illustrated  in  various> 
works,  but  especially  in  Evans's  Art" 
cwtf  St(»u  Implements^  Weapons,  and 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


4d 


and 


Ornaments  of  Great  Britain.  It  is 
sufficient,  therefore,  to  refer  to  luch 
authorities  for  details. 

But  besides  the  numerous  speci- 
mens of  the  manufactures  in  flint, 
horn,  and  bone,  illustrative  of  the 
mechanical  ingenuity  of  this  primitive 
era,  special  attention  is  due  to  the 
actual  evidences  of  imitative  and 
artistic  skill  of  the  sculptors  and 
draughtsmen  of  the  same  period. 

Different  attempts  have  been  made, 
especially  by  Freuch  savam,  to  sub- 
divide the  palaeontologic  age  of  man 
into  a  succession  *  of  periods,  based 
chiefly  on  the  character  of  the  mamma- 
lian remains  accompanying  primitive 
works  of  art ;  and  the  two  great  sub- 
divisions of  the  elephantine  or  mam- 
moth age  and  the  reindeer  age  have 
been  specially  favored.  Among  the 
works  of  art  of  the  cave-men  of  Peri- 
gord,  in  central  France,  contempo- 
rary with  the  reindeer,  various  draw- 
ings of  animals,  including  the  rein- 
deer itself,  have  been  found  incised 
on  bone  and  stone,  apparently  with  a 
pointed  implement  of  flint.  But  the 
most  remarkable  of  all  is  the  portrait 
of  a  mammoth,  seemingly  executed 
from  the  life,  outlined  on  a  plate  of 
ivory  found  in  the  Madelaine  Cave, 
on  the  viver  Vezfere,  by  M.  Lartet, 
when  in  company  with  M.  Verneuil 
and  Dr.  Falconer.  If  genuiner-and 
the  circumstances  of  the  discovery, 
no  less  than  the  character  of  the 
•explorers,  seem  to  place  it  above  sus- 
picion— this  most  ancient  work  of  art 
is  of  extreme  value.  The  skulls  and 
other  remains  of  five  individuals  have 
been  found  to  illustrate  the  men  of 
this  period.  The  cerebral  develop- 
ment is  good,  and  alike  in  features 
and  form  of  head  they  compare  favor- 
ably with  later  savage  races.  Their 
drawings  embrace  animals,  single  and 
in  groups,  including  the  mammoth, 
reindeer,  horse,  ox,  fish  of  different 
kinds,  flowers,  ornamental  patterns, 
and  also  ruder  attempts  at  the  human 
form.  They  also  carved  in  bone  and 
ivory.  Some  of  the  delineations  are 
as  rude  as  any  recent  specimens  of 
savage  art,  others  exhibit  consider- 


able skill;  but  the  most  remarkable 
of  all  is  the  representation  of  the 
mammoth.  It  has  been  repeatedly 
engraved,  and  as,  to  all  appearance, 
a  genuine  contemporary  effort  at  the 
portraiture  of  that  remarkable  animal, 
its  worth  is  considerable.  But  this 
sinks  into  insignificance  in  compari- 
son with  its  value  as  a  gauge  of  the 
intellectual  capacity  of  the  men  of 
that  remote  age.  It  represents  the 
extinct  elephant,  sketched  with  great 
freedom  of  hand,  and  with  an  artistic 
boldness  in  striking  contrast  to  the 
labored  efforts  of  an  untutored 
draughtsman.  Whatever  other  infer- 
ence be  deduced  from  it,  this  is 
obvii^''j,  that  in  intellectual  aptitude 
the  palaeolithic  men  of  the  reindeer 
period  of  central  France  were  in  no 
degree  inferior  to  the  average  French- 
man of  the  igth  century. 

2.  This  first,  or  palaeolithic  period, 
with  its  characteristic  implements  of 
chipped  flint,  belonging  to  an  epoch 
in  which  man  occup-ed  central  Eu- 
rope contemporaneously  with  the 
mammoth,  the  cave-bear,  and  other 
long-extinct  mammals,  was  followed 
by  the  second  or  Neolithic  Period,  or, 
as  it  has  been  sometimes  called,  the 
Surface-Stone  Period,  in  contradic- 
tion to  the  Drift  Period,  character- 
ized by  weapons  of  polished  flint  and 
stone.  The  discovery  and  explora- 
tion of  the  ancient  Pfahlbauten  or 
lake  villages  of  Switzerland  ;-nd  other 
countries,  including  the  crapnoges  of 
Ireland  and  Scotland,  and  of  the 
kjokken-moddings  or  refuse-heaps  of 
Denmark,  Scotland,  and  elsewhere, 
have  greatly  extended  the  illustra- 
tions of  this  period,  and  given  defi- 
niteness  to  the  evidences  of  its  an- 
tiquity. But  while  it  thus  includes 
works  of  a  very  remote  epoch,  it  also 
embraces  those  of  later  regular  sepul- 
ture, with  the  sepulchral  pottery  of 
rudest  type,  the  personal  ornaments 
and  other  remains  of  the  prehistoric 
races  of  Europe,  onward  to  the  da\/n 
of  history.  It  even  includes  the  first 
traces  of  the  use  of  the  metals,  in  the 
employment  of  gold  for  personal 
adornment,  though  with  no  intelligeot 


ARCHiEOLOGY. 


recognition  of  its  distinction  frr  m  the 
flint  and  stone  in  which  the  work- 
men ot  this  neolithic  period  chiefly 
wrought. 

The  nearly  indestructible  n„ture  of 
the  materials  in  which  the  manufact- 
urers alike  of  the  palaeolithic  and  the 
neolithic  period  chiefly  wrought,  helps 
to  account  for  the  immense  number 
of  weapons  and  implements  of  the 
two  prolonged  ages  of  stone-working 
which  have  been  recovered.  The 
specimens  now  accumulated  in  the 
famous  collection  of  the  Christians- 
borg  Palace  at  Copenhagen  amount 
to  several  thousands.  The  Royal 
Irish  Academy,  the  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries of  Scotland,  the  British  Mu- 
seum, and  other  collection&,  in  like 
manner  include  many  hundreds  of 
specimens,  ranging  from  the  remotest 
periods  of  the  cave  and  drift  men  of 
western  Europe  to  the  dawn  of  defi- 
nite history  within  the  same  Euro- 
pean area.  They  include  hatchets, 
adzes,  gouges,  chisels,  scrapers,  disks, 
and  other  tools  in  considerable  va- 
riety ;  axes,  lances,  spear  and  arrow 
heads,  mauls,  hammers,  and  other 
weapons  and  implements  of  war  and 
the  chase  ;  besides  a  variety  of  uten- 
sils, implements,  and  ornaments,  with 
regard  to  which  we  can  but  vaguely 
guess  the  design  of  their  construc- 
tion. Many  of  these  are  merely  chip- 
ped into  shape,  sometimes  with  much 
ingenuity,  in  other  cases  as  rudely  as 
the  most  ^barbarous  and  massive  im- 
plements of  the  palaeolithic  period. 
But  from  their  association,  in  graves 
or  otlier  clearly-recognized  deposits 
of  the  later  period,  with  ground  and 
polished  implements,  and  even  occa- 
sionally with  the  first  traces  of  a  time 
when  the  metals  were  coming  into 
use,  there  is  no  room  to  question 
their  later  origin.  In  part  they  may 
be  legitimately  recognized,  like  the 
whole  elements  of  archaeological  clas- 
sification, to  mark  different  degrees 
of  rudeness  in  successive  steps  to- 
ward civilization;  in  part  they  indi- 
cate, as  in  manufactures  of  our  own 
day,  the  economy  of  labor  in  roughly- 
fashioned  implements  designed  only 


for  the  rudest  work,  or  for  missiles 
the  use  of  which  involved  their  loss. 

To  the  same  primitive  period  of 
rude  savage  life  must  be  assigned  the 
rudiments  of  architectural  skill  per- 
taining to  the  Megalithic  Age.  Every- 
where we  find  traces,  alike  through- 
out the  seats  of  oldest  civilization 
and  in  earliest  written  records,  in- 
cluding the  historical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  Scriptures,  of  the 
erection  of  the  simple  monolith,  or 
unhewn  pillar  of  stone,  as  a  record 
of  events,  a  monumental  memorial, 
or  a  landmark.  There  is  the  Tanist 
Stone,  or  kingly  memorial,  like  that 
set  up  in  Shechem  when  Abimelech 
was  made  king ;  the  Hoar  Stone,  or 
boundary-stone,  like  "  the  stone  of 
Bohan,  the  son  of  Reuben,"  and 
other  ancient  landmarks  of  Bible 
story  ;  the  Cat  Stone,  v/x  battle-stone, 
a  memorial  of  some  great  victory; 
and  the  stone  set  up  as  the  evidence 
of  some  special  treaty  or  agreement, 
like  Laban  and  Jacob's  pillar  of  wit- 
ness at  Galeed.  To  the  same  primi- 
tive stage  of  architecture  belong  the 
cromlech,  the  cairn,  the  chambered 
barrow,  and  other  sepulchral  struct- 
ures of  unhewn  stone ;  as  well  as  the 
weams,  or  megalithic  subterranean 
dwellings  common  in  Scotland  and 
elsewhere,  until,  with  the  introduction 
of  metals  and  the  gradual  mastery 
of  metal  lurgic  art,  we  reach  the 
period  of  partially  hewn  and  sym- 
metrical structures,  of  which  the  great 
temple  of  Stonehenge  is  the  most 
remarkable  example.  But  it  is  in 
Egypt  that  megalithic  architecture  is 
seen  in  its  most  matured  stage,  with 
all  the  massiveness  which  so  aptly 
symbolizes  barbarian  power,  but  also 
with  a  grandeur,  due  to  artistic  taste 
and  refinement,  in  which  the  pon- 
derous solidity  of  vast  megalithic 
structures  is  relieved  by  the  graces  of 
colossal  sculpture  and  of  an  inex- 
haustible variety  of  architectural  de- 
rail. There  appears  to  be  a  stage  in 
the  development  of  the  human  mind 
in  its  progress  toward  civilization 
when  an  unconscious  aim  at  the  ex- 
pression of  abstract  power  tends  to 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


45 


beget  an  era  of  megalithic  art.  The 
huge  cromlechs,  monoliths,  and  cir- 
cles still  abounding  in  many  centers 
of  European  civilization  perpetuate 
the  evidence  of  such  a  transitional 
stage  among  its  prehistoric  races. 
But  it  was  in  Egypt  that  an  isolation, 
begot  by  the  peculiar  conditions  of  its 
unique  physical  geography,  though 
also  perhaps  ascribable  in  part  to  cer- 
tain ethnical  characteristics  of  its 
people,  permitted  this  megalithic  art 
to  mature  into  the  highest  perfection 
of  which  it  is  capable.  There  the 
rude  unhewn  monol'th  became  the 
graceful  obelisk,  the  cairn  was  trans- 
formed into  the  symmetrical  pyramid, 
and  the  stone  circles  of  Avebury  and 
Stonehenge,  or  the  megalithic  laby- 
rinths of  Carnac  in  Brittany,  de- 
veloped into  colonnaded  avenues  and 
temples,  like  those  of  Denderah  and 
Edfu,  or  the  colossal  sphinx  avenue 
of  Luxor. 

Elaborately-finished  axes,  hammer- 
heads, cups,  and  vases  of  the  h  te 
neolithic  era  serve  to  illustrate  the 
high  stage  to  which  the  arts  of 
purely  stone  period  could  be  ad 
vanced,  in  the  absence  of  any  process 
of  arrestment  or  change.  But  long 
before  such  a  tendency  to  develop- 
ment into  ornamental  detail  and  sym- 
metrical regularity  of  construction 
could  be  brought  to  bear  on  the 
megalithic  architecture  of  the  same 
era,  the  metallurgic  sources  of  all 
later  civilization  had  begun  to  super- 
sede its  rude  arts.  To  such  remote 
eras  we  strive  in  vain  to  apply  any 
definite  chronology.  At  best  we 
work  our  way  backward  from  the 
modem  or  known  into  the  mysterious 
darkness  of  remotest  antiquity,  where 
it  links  itself  to  u  ^measured  ages  of 
geological  time.  But  by  such  means 
science  has  been  able  to  add  a 
curious  chapter  to  the  beginnings  of 
British  and  of  European  story,  involv- 
ing questions  of  mysterious  interest 
in  relation  to  the  earliest  stages  in 
the  history  of  man.  The  very  char- 
acteristics which  distinguish  him  in 
his  rudest  stage  from  all  other  ani- 
mals have  helped  from  remotest  times 


to  perpetuate  the  record  of  his  prog- 
ress. 

The  evidences  of  the  various  ac- 
quirements and  degrees  of  civiliz^;- 
tion  of  the  prehistoric  races  of  Britain 
are  derived  not  only  from  weapons, 
implements,  pottery,  and  personal 
ornaments  found  deposited  in  ancient 
dwellings  and  sepulchres ;  but  from 
still  older  traces  supplied  by  chance 
discoveries  of  the  agriculturist,  miner,' 
and  builder,  such  as  the  implements 
of  the  ancient  whalers  of  the  Forth, 
or  the  monoxylous  oaken  canoes  dug 
up  from  time  to  time  in  the  valley  of 
the  Clyde,  or  even  beneath  some  of 
the  most  ancient  civic  foundations  of 
Glasgow.  Both  alike  pertain  to  areas 
of  well-defined  historical  antiquity, 
from  the  very  dawn  of  written  history, 
or  of  literate  chronicles  in  any  form  ; 
and  both  also  have  their  geological 
records,  preserving  the  evidence  of 
changes  of  level  in  unrecorded  cent- 
uries subsequent  to  the  advent  of 
man,  when  the  whales  of  the  Forth 
and  the  canoes  of  the  Clyde  were 
embedded  in  the  ahuvium  of  those 
iver-valleys,  and  elevated  above  the 
ancient  tide-marks  of  their  estuaries. 
Another  change  of  level,  possibly  in 
uninterrupted  continuance  of  the  an- 
cient upheaval,  has  been  in  progress 
since  the  Roman  invaders  constructed 
their  military  roads,  and  built  their 
wall  between  the  Forth  and  the 
Clyde,  in  the  ist  and  2d  centuries 
of  the  Christian  era. 

By  evidence  such  as  this  a  starting- 
point  is  gained  whence  we  may  con- 
fidently deduce  the  colonization  of 
the  British  Islands,  and  of  the  north 
of  Europe,  at  periods  separated  by 
many  centuries  from  that^  in  which 
our  island  first  figures  in  history. 
The  researches  of  the  ethnologist  add 
to  our  knowledge  of  this  unrecorded 
era,  by  disclosing  some  of  the  phys- 
ical characteristics  of  the  aboriginal 
races,  derived  from  human  remains 
recovered  in  cave-drifts,  ancient  min- 
ing shafts,  bogs,  and  marl-pits,  or 
found  in  the  most  ancient  sepulchres, 
accompanied  by  rudest  evidences  of 
art;  and  the  researches  oi  Nilsson, 


46 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


Ii5 


Eschricht,  Gosse,  Rathke,  Broca,  and 
other  Continental  ethnologists,  along 
with  those  which  have  been  carried 
on  with  minute  care  in  the  British 
Islands,  disclose  characteristic  cra- 
nial types  indicating  a  succession  of 
prehistoric  races  different  from  the 
predominant  types  belonging  to  the 
historical  period  of  Europe ;  and 
some  of  them  probably  contempora- 
neous with  the  changes  indicated  in 
the  periods  of  archaeological  lime. 

The  very  latest  stage  of  archaeolog- 
ical antiquity,  when  it  seems  to  come 
in  contact  with  the  dawn  of  historic 
time,  was  unquestionably  one  of  com- 
plete barbarism,  as  is  sufficiently  ap- 
parent from  its  correspondence  to  that 
which  the  intercourse  with  European 
voyagers  :s  bringing  to  a  close  among 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  The  an- 
cient Scottish  subterranean  dwellings 
termed  weems  (Gaelic  uamhah^  a 
cave),  or  "  Picts'  houses,"  have  been 
frequently  found,  apparently  in  the 
state  in  which  they  must  have  been 
abandoned  by  their  original  occu- 
pants ;  and  from  those  we  learn  that 
their  principal  aliment  must  have 
been  shell-f^sh  and  Crustacea,  derived 
from  the  neighboring  sea-beach,  along 
with  the  chance  products  of  the  chase. 
The  large  accumulations  of  the  com- 
mon shell-fish  of  our  coasts  found 
in  some  of  those  subterranean  dwell- 
ings is  remarkable ;  though  along 
with  such  remains  the  stone  quern  or 
hand-mill,  as  well  as  the  ruder  corn- 
crusher  or  pestle  and  mortar,  repeat- 
edly occur;  supplying  the  important 
evidence  that  the  primitive  nomade 
had  not  been  altogether  ignorant  of 
the  value  of  the  cereal  grains. 

The  source  of  change  in  Britain, 
and  throughout  Europe,  from  this 
rude  state  of  barbarism,  is  clearly 
traceable  to  the  introduction  of  metals 
and  the  discovery  of  the  art  of  smelt- 
ing ores.  Gold  was  probably  the 
earliest  metal  wrought  both  from  its 
attractive  appearance,  and  from  its 
superficial  deposits,  and  the  condition 
in  which  it  is  frequently  found,  rend- 
ering its -working  an  easy  process. 
Tin  also,  in  the  sotith  of  Britain,  was 


wrought  at  the  very  dawn  of  history : 
and,  with  the  copper  v/hich  abounds 
in  the  same  district  of  country,  sup- 
plied the  elements  of  the  new  and  im- 
portant compound  metal,  bronze. 

3  This  accordingly  indicates  the 
transition  from  the  later  stone  age  to 
the  third  or  Bronze  Period,  which,  be- 
ginning apparently  with  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  native  copper  as  a  mallea- 
ble metal,  and  then  as  a  material 
capable  of  being  melted  and  molded 
into  form  by  the  application  of  heat, 
was  followed  up  by  the  art  of  smelt- 
ing the  crude  ores  so  as  to  extract  the 
metal,  and  that  of  mixing  metals  in 
diverse  proportions  so  as  to  prepare 
an  alloy  of  requisite  ductility  or  hard- 
ness, according  to  the  special  aims  of 
the  artificer. 

Along  with  the  full  mastery  of  the 
working  in  copper  and  bronze  the 
skill  of  the  goldsmith  was  correspond- 
ingly developed;  and  the  ornaments 
of  this  period,  including  to'-q-'es,  arm- 
lets, beads,  and  other  personal  deco- 
rations ai<d  insignia  of  office,  wrought 
in  gold,  are  numerous,  and  often  of 
great  beauty.  The  pottery  of  the 
same  period  exhibits  corresponding 
improvement  in  material,  form,  and 
ornamentation ;  though  considering 
the  minetic  and  artistic  skill  shown 
in  the  drawings  and  carvings  of  the 
remotest  periods,  it  is  remarkable 
that  the  primitive  pottery  of  Europe  is 
limited,  alike  in  shape  and  decoration, 
to  purely  arbitrary  forms.  This  in  its 
crudest  con'^ntionalisni  consists  al- 
most exclusively  of  varieties  of  zigzag 
patte  ns  scratched  or  indented  on 
the  soft  clay.  This  primitive  or- 
namentation seems  so  natural,  as  the 
first  aesthetic  promptings  of  the  hu- 
man mind,  that  it  is  difTiCult,  if  not  in 
some  cases  impossible,  to  distinguish 
between  the  simple  pottery  of  com- 
paratively recent  origin,  recovered  on 
the  sites  of  old  American  Indian  vil- 
lages, and  primitive  pottery  obtained 
from  British  barrows  pertaining  to 
centuries  long  prior  to  the  Christian 
era.  But  the  fictile  ware  exhibits  an 
improvement  in  some  degree  corre- 
sponding to  that  of  the  metallurgic  art, 


ARCHiEOLOGV. 


47 


which  ever)'where  throughout  Europe 
furnishes  weapons,  implements,  and 
personal  ornaments  of  the  bronze  pe- 
riod, characterized  by  much  grace  and 
delicacy  in  form,  and  by  an  ornamen- 
tation peculiar  in  style,  but  not  un- 
worthy of  the  novel  forms  and  mate- 
rial. 

It  was  long  assumed,  alike  by  histo- 
rians and  antiquaries,  that  the  beauti- 
ful bronze  swords,  spear-heads,  shields, 
torques,  armillae,  etc.,  so  frequently 
discovered,  were  mere  relics  of  for- 
eign conquest  or  barter,  and  they  were 
variously  assigned  to  Egyptian,  Phoe- 
nician, Roman,  or  Danish  origin. 
But  this  gratuitous  assumption  has 
been  disproved  by  the  repeated  dis- 
covery of  the  molds  for  making  them, 
as  well  as  of  the  refuse  castings,  and 
even  of  beds  of  charcoal,  scoriae,  and 
other  indications  of  metallurgy,  on  the 
sites  where  they  have  been  found.  It 
has  not  escaped  notice,  however,  that 
the  transition  appears  to  be  an  abrupt 
one  from  stone  to  bronze,  an  alloy  re- 
quiring skill  and  experience  for  its 
use ;  and  that  few  examples  are  re- 
corded of  the  discovery  of  copper 
tools  or  weapons,  though  copper  is  a 
metal  so  easily  wrought  as  to  have 
been  in  use  among  the  Red  Indians  of 
America.  The  inference  from  this 
fact  is  one  which  all  elements  of 
probability  tend  to  confirm,  viz.,  that 
the  metallurgic  arts  of  the  north  of 
Europe  are  derived  from  a  foreign 
source,  whether  by  conquest  or  traffic ; 
and  that  in  the  beautiful  bronze  relics 
so  abundant,  especially  in  the  British 
Islands  and  in  Denmark,  we  see  the 
fruits  of  that  experience  which  the 
more  ancient  civilization  of  Egypt  and 
Phoenicia  had  diffused.  The  direct 
intercourse  between  the  countries  on 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  Cassiter- 
ides,  or  Tin  Islands, — as  the  only 
known  parts  of  the  British  Islands  are 
called  in  the  earliest  allusions  which 
are  made  to  them  by  Herodotus,  Aris- 
totle, and  Polybius, — abundantly  ac- 
counts tor  the  introduction  of  such 
knowledge  to  the  native  Biitons  at  a 
very  remote  period.  Phoenician  and 
Carthaginian  merchant  ships  traded 


to  Cornwall  centuries  before  the  white 
cliffs  of  Albion  were  first  seen  from 
the  Roman  war-galleys.  Greece  also, 
not  improbably,  proved  a  mediator  in 
this  all-important  transfer.  It  is  at 
least  to  be  noted  that  the  forms  of 
weapons,  and  especially  of  the  beauti- 
ful *'  leaf-shaped  sword,"  as  figured 
on  the  most  ancient  painted  Greek 
vases,  closely  correspond  to  the  most 
characteristic  relics  of  the  bronze  pe- 
riod in  the  north  of  Europe  and  the 
British  Isles. 

In  reviewing  the  characteristics  of 
this  bronze  period,  the  disclosures  of 
native  art  on  the  American  continent 
supply  some  singularly  interesting 
and  suggestive  illustrations.  There, 
throughout  the  whole  northern  re- 
gions of  the  North  American  conti- 
nent and  in  the  ruder  a)eas  of  South 
America,  as  well  as  in  the  West  In- 
dian archipelago,  a  population  was 
found  consisting  exclusively  of  rude 
nomad  hunters,  in  a  pure  stone  period 
of  primitive  savage  art.  Nor  does  it 
at  all  conflict  with  this  that  they  were 
to  a  certain  extent  familiar  with  the 
resources  of  the  rich  copper  regions  of 
Lake  Superior,  where  that  metal  is 
found  in  enormous  masses  in  a  malle- 
able state.  This  they  procured,  and 
not  only  themselves  employed  it  in 
the  manufacture  of  weapons,  imple- 
ments, and  personal  ornaments,  but 
distributed  it  by  barter  far  down  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys,  and 
eastward  to  the  great  lakes,  to  the  St. 
Lawrence  valley,  and  to  the  Hudson 
river.  Silver  and  lead  are  also  found 
the  same  rich  mineral   region  in 


in 


un- 


metallic  crystals,  and  were  not 
known  to  the  native  tribes.  But  every- 
where those  metals  were  cold-wrought, 
as  a  mere  malleable  stone  capable  of 
being  hammered  into  any  desired 
shape,  but  in  total  ignorance  of  the 
influence  of  fire  or  the  use  of  alloys. 

But  wholly  distinct  from  its  rude 
Indian  tribes.  North  America  had  its 
semi-civilized  Mexicans  and  South 
America  its  more  highly  civilized  Peru- 
vians, who  had  learned  to  mine  and 
smelt  the  ores  of  the  Andes,  and  make 
metallic  alloys  wherewith  to  fashion  for 


4$ 


ARCHiEOLOGY. 


I 


'ft 


,1 


ther.iselves  bronze  tools  of  requisite 
hardntss  for  quarrying  and  hewing  the 
solid  rock.  VVith  these  they  sculptured 
the  statues  of  their  gods,  and  reared 
palaces,  temples,  and  pyramids,  graven 
with  elaborate  sculptures  and  hiero- 
glyphics by  a  people  wholly  ignorant  of 
iron,  which  have  not  unjustly  suggested 
many  striking  analogies  with  the  nieg- 
alithic  art  of  ancient  Egypt.  The  Aua- 
COS,  or  tombs  of  the  Incas  of  Peru,  and 
also  their  royal  depositories  of  treas- 
ure, have  disclosed  many  remarkable 
specimens  of  elaborate  metallurgic 
skill, — brictlets,  collars,  and  other 
personal  ornaments  of  gold  ;  vases  of 
the  same  abundant  precious  metal, 
and  also  of  silver;  mirrors  of  bur- 
nished silver,  as  well  as  of  obsidian  ; 
finely-adjusted  silver  balances ;  bells 
both  of  silver  and  bronze;  and  nu- 
merous common  articles  and  tools  of 
copper,  or  of  the  more  efficient  alloy 
of  copper  and  tin, — all  illustrative  of  j 
the  arts  and  civilization  of  a  purely! 
bronze  age. 

4.  The  fourth  or  Iron  Period  is  that 
in  which  the  art  of  smelting  the  ores 
of  the  most  abundant  metal  had  at 
length  been  mastered;  and  so  iron 
superseded  bronze  for  arms,  sword- 
blades,  spear-heads,  axes,  daggers, 
knives,  etc.  Bronze,  however,  con- 
tinued to  be  applied  to  many  purposes 
of  personal  ornament,  horse  furniture, 
thfc  handles  of  swords  and  other 
weapons;  nor  must  it  be  overlooked 
that  flint  and  stone  were  still  em- 
ployed for  lance  and  arrow-heads, 
sling-stones,  and  other  common  pur- 
poses of  warfare  or  the  chase,  not 
only  throughout  the  whole  bronze  pe- 
riod, but  far  into  the  age  of  iron. 
The  discovery  of  numerous  arrow- 
heads, or  fiakes  of  black  flint,  on  the 
plain  of  Marathon,  has  been  assumed 
with  good  reason  to  point  to  the  use 
of  such  rude  weapons  by  the  barbarian 
host  of  Danus ;  and  the  inference  is 
confirmed  by  the  facts  which  Herodo- 
tus records,  that  Ethiopian  auxiliaries 
of  the  army  of  Xerxes,  ten  ytixs  later, 
were  armed  with  arrows  tipped  with 
stone. 

The  essential  change  resulting  from 


the  maturing  of  the  iron  period  lies  in 
the  unlimited  supply  of  the  new  metal. 
Had  bronze  been  obtainable  in  suffi- 
cient quantity  to  admit  of  its  applica- 
tion to  the  endless  purposes  for  which 
iron  has  since  been  employed,  the 
mere  change  of  metal  would  have 
been  of  slight  significance.  But  the 
opposite  was  the  case.  The  beauti- 
ful alloy  was  sca.ce  and  costly ;  and 
hence  the  arts  of  the  neolithic  period 
continued  to  be  practiced  throughout 
the  whole  duration  of  the  age  of 
bronze.  But  iron,  though  so  abund- 
ant in  its  ores,  requires  great  labor 
and  intense  heat  to  fuse  it;  and  it 
needed  the  prolonged  schooling  of 
the  previous  metallurgic  era  to  pre- 
pare the  way  for  the  discovery  of  the 
properties  of  the  ironstone,  and  the 
processes  requisite  to  turn  it  to  ac- 
count. Iron,  moreover,  though  so 
abundant,  and  relatively  of  compara- 
tively recent  introduction,  is   at   the 

ie  time  the  most  perishable  of  met- 
It  rapidly  oxidizes  unless  pro- 
..wd  from  air  and  moisture,  and 
hence  few  relics  of  this  metal  belong- 
ing to  the  prehistoric  period  have 
been  preserved  in  such  a  state  as  to 
illustrate  the  skill  and  artistic  taste  of 
the  fabricators  of  that  last  pagan  era, 
in  the  way  that  the  implements  of  the 
three  previous  periods  reveal  to  us 
the  habits  and  intellectual  status  of 
those  older  times. 

But  the  iron  is  the  symbol  of  a  pe- 
riod in  which  pottery,  personal  orna- 
ments of  the  precious  metals,  works 
in  bronze,  in  stone,  and  other  durable 
materials,  supply  ample  means  of 
gauging  the  civilization  of  the  era,  and 
recognizing  the  progress  of  man  in 
the  arts,  until  we  come  at  length  to 
connect  their  practice  with  definite 
historical  localities  and  nations,  and 
the  names  of  Egypt  and  Phoenicia, 
of  Gadir,  Massilia,  the  Cassiterides, 
and  Noricum,  illuminate  the  old  dark- 
ness, and  we  catch  the  first  streak  of 
dawn  on  a  definite  historical  horizon. 
Thus,  with  the  mastery  of  the  metal- 
lurgic arts  is  seen  the  gradual  devel- 
opment of  those  elements  of  progress 
whereby  the  triumphs  of  civilization 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


have  been  finally  achieved,  and  man 
has  advanced  toward  that  stage  in 
which  the  inductive  reasonings  of  the 
archaeologist  are  displaced  by  records 
more  definite,  though  not  always  more 
trustworthy,  as  the  historian  begins  his 
researches  with  the  aid  of  monu- 
mental records,  inscriptions,  poems, 
and  national  chronicles. 

Within  the  later  iron  period,  ac- 
cordingly, we  reach  the  era  of  authen- 
tic history.  There  is  no  room  for 
doubt  that,  whatever  impetus  the 
Roman  invasion  may  have  given  to 
the  working  of  the  metals  in  Britain, 
iron  was  known  there  prior  to  the 
landing  of  Julius  Caesar.  Within  this 
archaeological  period,  however  the  ex- 
amples of  Roman  art  and  the  influences 
of  Roman  civilization  begin  to  play  a 
prominent  part.  To  this  period  suc- 
ceed the  Saxon  and  Scandinavian  eras 
of  invasion,  vith  no  less  characteristic 
peculiarit  ,  of  art  workmanship,  as 
well  as  (M  sepulchral  rites  and  social 
usages.  In  these  later  periods  definite 
history  comes  to  the  aid  of  archaeolog- 
ical induction,  while  those  intermediate 
elements  of  historical  re-edification, 
the  inscriptions  on  stone  and  metal, 
and  the  numismatic  series  of  chrono- 
logical records,  all  unite  to  complete 
a  picture  of  the  past  replete  with  im- 
portant elements  for  the  historian. 

The  connection  between  archaeol- 
ogy and  geology  has  been  indicated, 
but  that  between  archaeology  and  eth- 
nology is  of  much  more  essential  sig- 
nificance, and  is  every  day  being 
brought  into  clearer  view.  By  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  tombs  of  ancient 
races,  and  the  elucidation  of  their 
sepulchral  rites,  remarkable  traces  of 
unsuspected  national  affinities  are 
brought  to  light;  while  a  still  more 
obvious  correspondence  of  arts  in  cer- 
tain stages  of  society,  among  races 
separated  alike  by  time  and  by  space, 
reveals  a  uniformity  in  the  operation 
of  certain  human  instincts,  when  de- 
veloped under  nearly  similar  circum- 
stances, such ,  as  goes  far  to  supply  a 
new  argument  in  proof  of  the  unity  of 
the  human  race. 

The  self-evident  truths  confirmatory 


of  the  principles  upon  which  this  sys- 
tem of  primitive  archaeology  is  based, 
may  be  thus  briefly  summed  up : — 
Man,  in  a  savage  state,  is  to  a  great 
extent  an  isolated  being ;  co-operation 
for  mutual  and  remote  advantage,  ex- 
cept in  war  and  the  chase,  is  scarcely 
possible ;  and  hence  experience  at 
best  but  slowly  adds  to  the  common 
stock  of  knowledge.  In  this  primi- 
tive stage  of  society  the  implements 
and  weapons  which  necessity  renders 
indispensable  are  invariably  supplied 
from  the  sources  at  hand;  and  the 
element  of  time  being  of  little  mo- 
ment, the  rude  workman  fashions  his 
stone  axe  or  hammer,  or  his  lance  of 
flint,  with  an  expenditure  of  labor 
such  as,  with  the  appliances  of  civili- 
zation, would  suffice  for  the  manufact- 
ure of  hundreds  of  such  implements. 

The  discovery  of  the  metallurgic 
arts,  by  diminishing  labor  and  supply- 
ing a  material  more  susceptible  of 
varied  form"  as  well  as  of  ornamenta- 
tion, and  also  one  originating  co- 
operation by  means  of  the  new  wants 
it  calls  into  being,  inevitably  begets 
social  progress.  The  new  material, 
moreover,  being  limited  in  supply,  and 
found  only  in  a  few  localities,  soon 
leads  to  barter,  and  thence  to  regular 
trade ;  and  thus  the  first  steps  toward 
a  division  of  labor  and  mutual  co- 
operation are  made.  So  long,  how- 
ever, as  the  metal  is  copper  or  bronze, 
the  limited  supply  must  greatly  re* 
strict  this  social  progress,  while  the 
facilities  for  working  it  admit  of  that 
isolation  so  natural  to  man  in  a  rude 
state ;  and  these,  added  to  the  fre- 
quent discovery  of  copper,  in  its  nat- 
ural condition  much  more  nearly 
resembling  a  ductile  metal  than  the 
ironstone,  abundantly  account  for  its 
use  having  preceded  that  of  the  more 
abundant  metal. 

Great  experience  must  have  been 
acquired  in  earlier  metallurgy  be- 
fore the  iron  ore  was  attempted  to 
be  wrought.  In  this,  co-operation 
was  indispensable ;  but  that  once 
secured,  and  the  first  difficulties 
overcome,  the  other  results  appear 
inevitable.    The  supply  is  inexhayst* 


60 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


l-ir 


^1: 


ible,  widely  diflFused,  and  procurable 
without  excessive  labor.     The  mate- 
rial elemeits    of    civilization    were 
thereby  rendered    available,  and    all 
succeeding   progress   might    be  said 
to  depend  on  the  capacity  of  the  race. 
The  simplicity  which  characterizes 
the     archaeological     disclosuies     ot 
Scandinavia,  Germany,  Ireland,  and 
other  regions  of  trans-Alpine  Europe 
lying    outside    of    the   range  of  an- 
cient Greek  or  Roman  influences,  has 
contributed  some  important  aids  to 
the    study   of  prehistoric    arts ;  but 
the  full  significance  of  their  teachings 
has  yet  to  be  tested  by  comparison 
with  the  primitive  arts  pertaining  to 
Egypt,     Greece,    Asia    Minor,    and 
other  aiicient     centers     of    earliest 
civilization.     To   this  certain  singu- 
larly  irteresting  disclosures  of  very 
recent  date,  which  some  have  regard- 
ed as  at  variance  with  the  foregoing 
classification  of  archaeological  epochs, 
help  to  furnish  the  desired  materials. 
The  researches  of  Dr.  Heinrich  Schlie- 
mann  on  one  of  the  most  memorable 
sites  which  epic  poetry  has  selected 
ior  the  mythic  beginnings  of  history, 
have  brought  to  light  what  he  believes 
to  be  actual  remains  of  the  Troy  of 
the  //ia/i.     Dr.  Schliemann  began  his 
systematic  explorations   in  187 1;  and 
pursued  them,   during  the   available 
seasons,  till  the  month  of  June,  1873. 
With  patient  assiduity  the  accumulat- 
ed debris  on  the  scene  of  ancient 
civic  settlement  was  sifted  and  opened 
up  by  regular  excavations,  till  the  nat- 
ural rock  was  exposed  at  a  depth  of  up- 
ward of  50  feet.  Throughout  the  whole 
of   this,   abundant   traces   o:'  former 
occupation  were  brought    to    light ; 
and  so  great  an  accumulation  of  de- 
bris and  rubbish  upon  an  elevated 
site  affords   undoubted    evidence  of 
the  vicissitudes  of  a  long-settled  cen- 
ter  of   population.     To  this  specific 
evidence  lent  additional  confirmation. 
The   foundations  of  a  temple,  sup- 
posed to  be  that  of  the  Ilian  Athena 
of  the  time  of  Alexander,  along  with 
coins,    inscriptions,    an<^     numerous 
remains  of  architecture  and  sculpt- 
ure, combined  to  fix  the   era  of  an 


ancient,  but  strictly  historical,  period. 
At  a  further  dej.  ih  of  upward  of  6 
feet,  broken  pottery,  implements  of 
bronze,  and  charred  wood  and  ashes, 
shov/ed  the  traces  of  an  older  settle- 
ment which  had  perished  by  fire. 
But  the  artificial  character  of  the 
debris  encouraged  further  research  ; 
and  when  the  excavations  had  been 
carried  to  about  double  the  depth, 
Dr.  Schliemann  came  upon  a  deposit 
rich  in  what  may  be  styled  neclithic 
remains  :  axes,  hammers,  spear-heads, 
and  other  implements  of  polished 
diorite  or  other  stone,  weights  of 
granite,  querns  of  lava,  and  knives 
and  saws  of  flint  abounded,  associat- 
ed with  plain,  well-executed  pot- 
tery, bui  v/ith  only  two  pins  of  cop- 
per or  bronze  to  indicate  any 
knowledge  of  metal.  Continued  ex- 
cavations brought  to  light  additional 
stone  implements  and  weapons  ;  un- 
til at  a  depth  of  some  33  feet,  well- 
wrought  implements  and  weapons  of 
bronze,  and  pottery  of  fine  quality 
and  execution,  revealed  the  traces  of 
an  earlier  civilization  on  the  same 
ancient  site. 

In  all  this,  while  there  is  much  to 
interest,  there  is  nothing  to  surprise 
us.  Here,  near  the  shores  of  the 
Hellespont,  at  a  point  accessible  to 
the  oldest  known  centers  of  civiliza- 
tion,— to  Egypt,  Phtenicia,  Assyria, 
Greece,  *  Carthage,  and  Rome, — a 
civilized  community,  familiar  with  the 
arts  of  the  bronze  period  of  the 
Mediterranean  shores,  appears  to 
have  yielded  to  vicissitudes  familiar 
enough  to  the  student  of  ancient 
history.  After  a  time  the  desolated 
locality  tempted  the  settlement  of 
some  barbarian  Asiatic  horde,  such 
as  the  steppes  of  that  continent 
could  furnish  even  now.  They  were 
ignorant  of  metallurgic  arts  ;  thougn 
probably,  like  the  savage  tribes  of 
the  New  World  at  the  present  time, 
not  wholly  unaware  of  the  manufact- 
ure of  implements  and  weapons  of 
bronze  or  other  met-'"''  Such  a  local 
alternation  of  bronze  and  stone  pe- 
riods in  a  region  lying  in  close  prox- 
imity alike  to  vast  areas  of  Asiatic 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


61 


barbarism,  and  to  the  most  important 
centers  of  ancient  civilization,  in  no 
degree  conflicts  with  a  general  system 
of  succession  of  archaeological  periods. 
Mexico  and  Peru,  while  in  a  purely 
bronze  age,  were  overthrown  by 
Spanish  invaders.  Large  portions  of 
their  ancient  territories  were  aban- 
doned to  utter  barbarism,  and  even 
now  are  in  the  occupation  of  savage 
tribes.  But  the  ancient  city  of  Monte- 
zuma has  been  made  the  capital  of  a 
civilized  state  ;  the  beds  of  its  canals 
have  been  filled  up,  burying  therein 
obsidian,  stone,  and  bronze  imple- 
ments, pottery,  sculptures,  and  much 
else  pertaining  to  its  ante-Columbian 
era  ;  and  it  only  requires  such  a  fate 
as  its  modcn  history  renders  conceiv- 
able enough,  to  leave  for  future  ages 
the  buried  strata  of  a  civic  site  re- 
vealing similar  evidences  of  the 
alternation  of  semi-civilized,  barba- 
rian, and  civilized  ages,  on  the  same 
lonp:  inhabited  site  of  Toltecans  and 
Aztecs,  Indian  savages,  and  modern 
Mexicans  and  Spaniards. 

That  man  has  everywhere  preceded 
history  is    a    self*evident  truth.     So 
long  as  no  scientific  evidence  seemed 
to     conflict    with    a     long-accepted 
chronology  in  reference  to  the  antiq- 
uity assif;ned    to    the    human    race, 
it  remained  unchallenged,  though  the 
like  computation  had  been  universally 
rejected  in  reference  to  the  earth  as 
the   theater  of  his  history,    and  we 
were  content  to  regard  the  prehistoric 
era  of  man  as  no  more  than  a  brief 
infancy  of  the  race.     But  the  inves- 
tigations and    disclosures   of    recent 
years  in  reference  to  the  whole  prehis- 
torr  period  have  involved  of  neces- 
sity a  reconsideration  of  the  grounds 
on  which  a  definite  antiquity  of  com- 
paratively brief  duration  has  been  as- 
signed to  man  ;  and  the  tendency  at 
present  is  rather  to   exaggerate  than 
to   diminish  the    apparent    antiquity 
of  the  race.     The  nature  and  extent 
of  the  evidence  which  has  thus  far  re- 
warded intelHgent  research  have  been 
sufficiently   indic^ited  above ;  nnd  as 
it  is  still  far  from  complete,  the  stu- 


dent of  archaeology  will  act  wisely  in 
pushing  forward  his  researches,  and 
accumulating  and  comparing  all  avail- 
able evidence,  without  hastily  pro- 
nouncing any  absolute  verdict  on  this 
question.  But.  without  attempting 
to  connect  with  any  historic  chro- 
nology the  men  of  the  English 
drift,  or  the  troglodytes  of  the 
mammoth  or  reindeer  periods  of 
France,  it  may  be  useful,  in  con- 
cluding this  summary  of  primitive 
archaiology,  to  glance  at  the  origin 
of  civilization,  and  the  evidences 
of  the  antiquity  of  what  appear  to 
constUute  its  essential  elements. 

Everywhere    man   seems   to  have 
passed  through  the  same  progressive 
stages :  First,  that  of  the  savage  or 
purely  hunter  state;  a  condition  oi 
precarious  instability,  in  which  man 
is    mdst    nearly  in    the   state    of    a 
mere  animal  subsisting  on   its  prey. 
It  is  the  condition  of  nomad  life,  in- 
compatible with  a  numerous  or  settled 
population ;  exhausting  the  resources 
of  national  being  in  the  mere   strug- 
gle for  existence,  and  therefore  inim- 
ical to  all   accumulation  of  the  knowl- 
edge and    experience  on   which   hu- 
man progress  depends.     In  this  primi- 
tive state,  man  is  disclosed  to  us  by 
the  evidence  with  which  the  archaeol- 
ogist new  deals.     He  appears  every- 
where   in  this    first     stage   as  the 
savage  occupant  of  a  thinly-peopled 
continent,    warring  with    seemingly 
inadequate  means    against    gigantic 
carnivora,  the  contemporary  existence 
c'  which  is  known  to  us  only  by  the 
disclosures    of    geological  strata  or 
ossiferous  caves,  where  also  the   re- 
mains of  still  more  gigantic  herbivora 
confirm  the  idea  of  man's  exhaustive 
struggle  for  existence.     The  nearest 
analogy  to   such   a   state  of   life   is 
that  of  the  modern  Esquimaux,  war- 
ring with  the   monstrous  polar  bear, 
and   making  a   prey  of  the  gigantic 
cetaceae  of  Arctic  seas.    Through  how 
many  ages  this    unhistoric   night  of 
European  man   may  have  preceded 
the  dawn  of  civilization  it  is  at  pres- 
ent vain  to  speculate.    But  this  is 
noticeable,  that  there  is  no  inherent 


A 


f 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


f  i 


i<  i 

Iff: 


k 


IIP 


element  of  progress  in  a  people  in 
the  condition  of  the  Esquimaux, 
o  all  appearance,  if  uninfluenced  by 
external  impulse,  or  unaffected  by 
any  great  amelioration  of  climate, 
they  are  likely  to  prolong  the  mere 
struggle  for  existence  through  unnum- 
bered centuries,  armed,  as  now, 
with  weapons  and  implements  ingen- 
iously wrought  of  bone,  ivory,,  and 
stone,  the  product  of  the  neolithic 
arts  of  this  19th  century. 

To   this   succeeds  the    second  or 

pastoral  state,  with  its  flocks  and 
herds,  its  domesticated  animals,  and 
its  ideas  of  personal  property,  includ- 
ing in  its  earlier  stages  that  of  prop- 
erty in  man  himself.  It  pertains  to 
the  open  regions  and  warmer  cli- 
mates of  the  temperate  zone,  and  to 
the  elevated  steppes  and  valleys  of 
semi-tropical  countries,  where  the 
changing  .seasons  involve  of  neces- 
sity the  wandering  life  of  the  shep- 
herd. This  accordingly  prevents  the 
development  of  the  arts  of  settled  life, 

•  especially  those  of  architecture  ;  and 
precludes  all  idea  of  personal  prop- 
erty in  the  s'^il.  But  t-':e  conditions 
of  pastoral  life  are  by  no  means  in- 
compatible with  frequent  leisure,  re- 
flection, and  consequent  intellectual 
progress.  Astronomy  has  its  origin 
assigned  to  the  ancient  shepherds  of 
Asia ;  and  the  contemplative  pastoral 
life  of  the  patriarchs  Job  and  Abra- 
ham has  had  its  counterpart  in  many 
an  Arab  chief  of  later  times. 

The  third  or  agricultural  stage  is 
that  of  the  tillers  of  the  soil,  the 
Aryans,  the  ploughers  and  lords  of 
the  f.arth,  among  whom  are  developed 
the  elements  of  settled  social  life  in- 
volved in  the  personal  homestead  and 
all  the  ideas  of  individual  property 
in  land.  The  process  was  gradual. 
The  ancient  Germans,  according  to 
the  description  of  Tacitus,  led  the  life 
of  agricultural  nomads  ;  and  such  was 
the  state  of  the  Visigoths  and  Ostro- 
goths of  later  centuries.    But  this  was 

,  in  p^rt  due  to  the  physical  conditions 
of  t.'ans*Alpine  Europe  in  those  ear- 

<,  Uer  centuries.    Long  ages  before  that, 
as    the  ancient    Sanscrit    language 


proves,  the  great  Aryan  family,  of 
which  those  are  offshoots,  had  passed 
from  the  condition  of  agricultural 
nomads  to  that  of  lords  of  the  soil 
among  a  settled  agricultural  people. 
They  had  followed  up  the  art  of 
plowing  the  soil  with  that  of  ship- 
building and  "  plowing  "  the  waves. 
They  were  skilled  iu  sewing,  in  weav- 
ing, in  the  potter's  art,  and  in  ma- 
sonry. Their  use  of  numbers  was 
carried  as  high  at  least  as  a  hundred 
before  they  settled  down  from  their 
nomad  life.  They  had  domesticated 
the  cow,  the  sheep,  the  horse,  and 
the  dog  ;  and  their  p(tsu  or  feeders 
already  constituted  their  pecus,  their 
wealth,  before  the  pecunia  assumed 
its  later  forms  of  currency.  They 
had  also  passed  through  their  bronze 
and  into  their  iron  period  ;  for  their 
language  shows  that  they  were  al- 
ready acquainted  with  the  most  use- 
ful metals  as  well  as  with  the  most 
valuable  grains. 

The  whole  evidence  of  history 
points  to  the  seats  of  earliest  civiliza- 
tion in  warm  climates,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Nile,  the  il  jphrates,  the  Tigris,  the 
Indus,  and  the  Ganges.  The  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean  succeeded  in  later 
centuries  to  their  inheritance,  and 
were  the  seats  of  long-enduring  em- 
pires, whose  intellectual  bequests 
are  the  life  of  all  later  civilization. 
But  trans-Alpine  Europe,  which  is 
now  yielding  up  to  us  the  records  of 
its  prehistoric  ages,  is  entirely  of 
modern  growth  so  far  as  it?  historic 
civilization  is  concerned,  and  wher- 
ever it  extends  toward  the  northern 
verge  of  the  temperate  zone  it  is 
even  now  in  its  infancy.  Here,  then, 
we  trace  our  way  back  to  the  first 
progressive  efforts  of  reason,  and 
find  man  primeval,  in  a  state  of  nat- 
ure, in  the  midst  of  the  abundance 
pertaining  to  a  genial  and  fertile 
climate,  which  rather  stimulates  his 
aesthetic  faculty  than  enforces  him 
by  any  rigorous  necessity  to  cultivate 
the  arts  for  the  purposes  of  clothing 
and  building.  Thus  employing  his 
intellectual  leisure,  he  begins  that 
progressive    elevation    which    is   as 


ARCHiEOLCGY. 


58 


consistent    with  his   natural   endow- 
ments as  a  rational   being  as   it   is 
foreign  to  the  instincts  of  all  other 
animals.     He    increases    and   multi- 
plies, spreads  abroad  over  the  face 
of  the  earth,  clears  its  forests,  drains 
its  swamps,  makes  its  rivers  and  seas 
his    highways,  and    its   valleys  and 
plains  his  fertile  fields  and  pasture- 
grounds.    Cities  rise,    with    all    the 
fostering  influences"  of  accumulated 
wealth  and  settled  leisure,  and  with 
all  the  stimulating  influences  of   ac- 
quired  tastes  and  luxurious  desires. 
The  rude  pictorial  art — not  ruder  on 
the   graven  ivory  of  the  troglodytes 
of  the  Madelaine  cave  than  on  many 
a  hieroglyphic  drawing  of  the  cata- 
combs  and  temples   of   Egypt— em- 
ployed in  picture-writing,  passes  by 
a  natural  and   inevitable    transition 
from  the    literal  representations    of 
objects  to  the  symbolic  suggestion  of 
ideas,  to  a  word-alphabet,  and  then 
to  pure   phonetic  signs.    The  whole 
process  is  manifest  from  the  very  in- 
fancy of  Egyptian  picture-writing,  as 
crude  as  that  with  which  the  Indian 
savage  still  records  his  deeds  of  arms 
on    his  buffalo-robe,  or    carves  the 
honors    of    the    buried    warrior    on 
his    grave-post.     Letters    lie   at  the 
foundation  of   all  high  and  enduring 
civilization,    yet  we  can  thus  trace 
them  back  to   their   infantile  origin  ; 
and  so  onward   in  their  slow  trans- 
formations, as    in  the   mingled  pic- 
torial  and  phonetic  writing    of  the 
Rosetta   stone   hieroglyphics  of  the 
age     of     the     Ptolemies.     Through 
Phoenician,  Greek,  and  Roman  mod- 
ifications, they  have   come  down  to 
us  as  the  arbitrary  symbols  of  sounds 
which  the  voice  combines  into  articu- 
late speech. 

And  as  it  is  with  letters  so  it  is 
with  man's  arts, — his  drawing,  carv- 
ing, sculpture,  architecture,  weaving, 
pottery,  metallurgy  ;  and  so  with  his 
scimcf, — his  astrology,  astronomy, 
geometry,  alchemy,  and  all  else. 
The  beginnings  of  all  of  them  lie 
within  our  reach.  We  can  trace 
back  the  measurements  of  solar  time 
to   the  crudest    beginnings  of  more 


than  one  ancient  nation,  with  a  year 
of  360  days.  This,  corrected  to  the 
definite  approximation  to  the  true 
solar  year  of  a  period  of  365  days, 
became  the  vague  year  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, with  the  great  Sothiac  cycle  of 
1460  years,  clearly  pointing  to  a  sys- 
tem of  chronology  which  could  not 
have  been  perpetuated  through  many 
centuries  without  conflicting  with  the 
most  obvious  astronomical  phenomena 
as  well  as  with  the  recurring  seasons 
of  the  year. 

•  Man  is,  after  all,  according  to  the 
boldest  speculations  of  the  geologist, 
among  the  most  modern  of  living 
creatures.  If  indeed  the  theory  of 
evolution  from  lower  forms  of  animal 
life  is  accepted  as  the  true  history  of 
his  origin,  time  may  well  be  prolonged 
through  unnumbered  ages  to  admit  cf 
the  process  which  is  to  develop  the 
irrational  brute  into  man.  But  re- 
garding him  still  as  a  being  called 
into  existence  as  the  lord  of  creation 
endowed  with  reason,  the  demonstra- 
tion of  a  prolonged  existence  of  the 
race,  with  all  its  known  varieties,  its 
diversities  of  language,  and  its  wide 
geographical  distribution  under  con- 
ditions so  diverse,  tends  to  remove 
greater  difficulties  than  it  creates. 
No  essenticl  doctrine,  or  principle  in 
morals,  is  involved  in  the  acceptance 
or  rejection  of  any  term  of  duration 
for  the  human  race  ;  and  the  idea 
of  its  unity,  which  for  a  time  was 
scornfully  rejected  from  the  creed  of 
the  ethnologist,  is  now  advocated  by 
the  evolutionist  as  alone  consistent 
with  the  physical,  mental,  and  moral 
characteristics  common  to  savage 
and  civilized  man,  whether  we  study 
him  amid  the  traces  of  palaeolithic 
osteology  and  arts  or  among  the 
most  diverse  races  of  living  men. 

The  process  of  research  and  induc- 
tive reasoning  thus  applied  by  the 
archaeologist  to  the  traces  of  primitive 
art  and  the  dawn  of  civilization,  is  no 
less  applicable  to  all  periods.  The 
songs  and  legends  of  the  peasantry, 
the  half-oblitej-ated  traces  of  ancient 
manners,  the  fragments  of  older  lan- 
guages, the  relics  of  obsolete  art,  are 


64 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


all  parts  of  what  has  been  fitly  styled 
"  unwritten  history,"  and  furnish  the 
means  of  recovering  many  records  of 
past  periods  which  must  remain  for- 
ever a  blank  to  those  who  will  recog- 
nize none  but  written  or  monumental 
evidence. 

Proceeding  to  the  investigation  of 
this  later,  and  in  most  of  the  higher 
requirements  of  history,  this  more  im- 
portant branch  of  historical  evidence, 
the  archaeologist  has  still  his  own 
special  departments  of  investigation. 
Tracing  the  various  alphabets  in  their 
gradual  development  through  Phoeni- 
cian, Greek,  Roman  and  other  sources, 
and  the  changing  forms  which  fol- 
lowed under  the  influences  of  Byzan- 
tine and  mediaeval  art,  a  complete 
system  of  palaeography  has  been  de- 
duced, calculated  to  prove  an  impor- 
tant auxiliary  in  the  investigation  of 
monumental  and  written  records. 
Palaeography  has  its  own  rules  of 
criticism,  supplying  an  element  of 
chronological  classification  altogether 
independent  of  style  in  works  of  art, 
or  of  internal  evidence  in  graven  or 
written  inscriptions,  and  a  test  of 
genuineness  often  invaluable  to  the 
^^storian. 

Architecture,  sculpture,  and  pottery 
have  each  their  historical  value,  their 
periods  of  pure  and  mixed  art,  their 
successions  of  style,  and  their  traces 
of  borrowed  forms  and  ornamentation, 
suggestive  of  Indian,  Assyrian,  Egyp- 
tian, Phoenician,  Punic,  Greek,  Etrus- 
can, Roman,  Arabian,  Byzantine,  Nor- 
man or  Renaissance  influences.  Sub- 
ordinate to  those  are  the  pictorial  arts 
combined  with  sculpture  and  potteiy, 
from  earliest  Egyptian,  Greek,  or 
Etruscan  art  to  the  frescoes  and  paint- 
ings of  mediaeval  centuries;  and  the 
rise  of  the  art  of  the  engraver,  trace- 
able through  ancient  chasing  on 
metals,  mediaeval  niello-work,  graven 
sepulchral  brasses,  and  so  on  to  the 
wood  blocks,  whence  at  length  the 
art  of  printing  with  movable  types 
originated.  And  as  in  the  Old  World, 
so  m  the  New,  the  progress  of  man  is 
traceable  from  rudest  arts  of  stone 
and  copper  to  the  bronze  period  of 


Mexico  and  Peru,  where  also  archi- 
tecture,  sculpture,  and  pottery  pre- 
serve for  us  invaluable  materials  for 
the  elucidation  of  that  prehistoric 
time  which  only  came  to  an  end  there 
in  the  year  1492  a.d. 

Heraldry  is  another  element  by 
means  of  which  archaeology  provides 
trustworthy  canons  of  criticism  in  re- 
lation to  written  and  unwritten  medi- 
aeval records.  The  seals  and  ma- 
trices, sepulchral  sculptures,  and  en- 
graved brasses,  along  with  an  exten- 
sive class  of  the  decorations  of 
ecclesiastical  and  domestic  architect- 
ure, all  supply  evidence  whereby 
names  and  dates,  with  confirmatory 
collateral  evidence  of  various  kinds, 
are  frequently  recoverable.  From  the 
same  sources  also  the  changing  cos- 
tume of  successive  periods  can  be 
traced,  and  thus  a  new  light  be  thrown 
on  the  manners  and  customs  of  past 
ages.  The  enthusiastic  devotee  is  in- 
deed apt  at  times  to  attach  an  undue 
importance  to  such  auxiliary  branches 
of  study ;  but  it  is  a  still  greater  ex- 
cess to  pronounce  them  valueless, 
and  to  reject  the  useful  aids  they  are 
capable  of  affording. 

No  less  important  are  the  illustra- 
tions of  history,  and  the  guides  in  the 
right  course  of  research,  which  numis- 
matics supplies,  both  in  relation  to 
early  and  mediaeval  times.  Oa  many 
of  those  points  the  historian  and  the 
archaeologist  necessarily  occupy  the 
same  field;  and  indeed,  when  that 
primitive  period  wherein  archaeology 
deals  with  the  whole  elements  of  our 
knowledge  regarding  it  as  a  branch 
of  inductive  science,  and  not  of  criti- 
cal history,  is  past,  the  student  of  an- 
tiquities becomes  to  a  great  extent 
the  pioneer  of  the  historian  He 
deals  with  the  raw  materials:  the 
charters,  deeds,  wills,  grants  of  land, 
of  privileges  or  immunities,  the  royal, 
monastic  and  baronial  accounts  of  ex- 
penditure, and  like  trustworthy  docu- 
ments ;  by  means  of  their  palaeogra- 
phy, seals,  illuminations,  and  other 
evidence,  he  fixes  their  dates,  traces 
out  the  genealogical  relationships  of 
their  authors,  and  in  various  ways 


ARCHAEOLOGY. 


fi6 


prepares  rnd  sifts  the  evidence  which 
IS  to  be  employed  anew  by  the  histo- 
rian in  revivifying  the  past.  Arch- 
itectu.e  and  all  departments  of  the 
fine  arts,  in  like  manner,  supply  much 
evidence  which,  when  investigated 
and  systematized  by  a  similar  process, 
adds  valuable  materials  to  the  stock 
of  the  historian,  and  furnishes  new 
sources  for  the  illumination  of  past 


ages.  Such  is  a  sketch  of  the  com- 
prehensive investigations  embraced 
under  the  name  of  archaeology,  which, 
carried  on  by  many  independent  la- 
borers, and  in  widely  varied  fields  of 
research  have  contributed  important 
chapters  of  human  history,  and  revivi- 
fied ages  long  buried  in  oblivion,  or 
at  best  but  dimly  seen  through  dis- 
torting media  of  myth  and  fable. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAP.  **•'■• 

I.  SCoPK  OF  THE  Science i 

II.  Man's  Place  in  Nature...- * 

III.  Origin  of  Man 8 

IV.  Races  OF  Mankind > 9 

V.  Antiquity  of  Man i • *7 

VI.  Language • ■ ...•••  22 

VII.  Development  of  Civilization , 28 

ARCHAEOLOGY 34 


i 


1 


4WlWipi 


El  S 

11 


/^ 


7v?A^  J0OOXS  IfOH  THE  PRICE  OF  ONE, 


^    The  Humboldt  Library  of  Science 

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txcellence,  by  authots  of  the  first  rank  in  the  world  of  science. 

In  this  series  are  well  represented  "^^^e  writings  of 


DARWIN,  HUXLEY,  SPENCER, 

CUFFORD,  CLODD,  BAGEHOT, 

WALLACE,  TRENCH,  ROMANES, 

HINTON,  SULLY,  FUMMARION, 

BALFOUR  STEWART, 


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BAIN, 

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Ko.  X.   litabtktelence  for  I<eiaitre  Hours. 

A  series  of  familiar  essays  on  astro- 
nomical and  other  natural  phenome- 
aa.   By  Richard  A. ..  roctor,  P.R.A.S. 

Va  a.  Forma  of  Water  in  Clouds  and 
Rivers,  Ice  and  Claci'srs.  (19  illuslra- 
tioHs).    By  John  Tyndall,  K.R.S. 

■JSu,  «.  Pbyale*  and  Politics*  An  appli- 
cation of  the  principles  of  Natural 
Science  to  PoliticcI  Society.  B/ 
Walter  Bagehot  author  of  "The 
English  Constitution." 

Ko.  4.   nan's    Place   In    Natn/e«    (tvilh 
>  numerous  illustrations).    By  Thomas 

H.  Huxley,  P.R.S. 

~|dncatlon»  Intellectual,  Moral,  and 
Physical.    By  Herbert  Spencer. 

Ha  6.  Tow^n  Geologf*  With  Appendix  on 
Coral  and  Coral  Reefs.  By  Rev.  Chas. 
Kingsley. 

Ko.  7.   Tbe  Oonserratlon  of  EnersTt 

{with  numerous  illustrations) .  By 
Balfour  Stewart,  Ll,-D. 

No.  &   Tbe  Stndy  of  lianarnaces,  brought 

back  to  its  true  principles.  By  C. 
MarceL 

Ka  9.  Tbe  Data  of  Etblcs.  By  Herbert 
Spencer. 


nv>.  5. 


Vaxo.  Tbe  Tbeory  of 


Sound  In  Its 

..Juslo*  (nufnerous 

By  Prof.  Pietro  Blas- 


Celatlou    to   VHumlOf^  jinumerpus 


ITo.  XX 
|Ka  13. 

^o.x3. 

{Kax4. 


erna 

!Tbe  ; 
Ami 
tra-'e 
F.I,.S 
separ 


illustrations). 
cma. 
'Tbe  Naturalist  on  tbe  Blver 
Amaaon*  A  record  of  11  years  of 
r'el.  By  Henry  Walton  Bates, 
_.I,.S.  (Double  number.  Ifot  sold 
separately). 

Mind  and  Vodr*     The  theories  of 
their  relation.    By  Alex.  Bain,  I<I<.D. 

Tbe  Wonders  of  tbe  HeaTens, 

Ctkirfy-4wo  illustrations).    By  CamiUe 
Flammarion. 

Mb-  ■■)   Ii«ncevltir.    The  means  of  prolong- 
^ng  life  after  middle  age.    By  John 
Oard^er,  M.D. 


No.  16.   On  tbe  Origin  of  Species*     By 

Thomas  H.  Huxley,  F.R.S.  , 

No.  17.    Progress  t  Its  Laiv  and  Canse. 

With  other  disquisition  3.   By  Herbert 
Spencer. 

No.  18.  liCssons  In  Bleotrlclty*  (sixty  illus- 
trations).   By  John  Tyndiall,  F.R.S. 

No.  19.  Familiar  ISsiiaT!!  nn  SclentlOe 
Subjects.   By  Richard  A.  Proctor. 

No.  ao.   Tb«)  HKomauce  of  Astronomv* 

By  R.  Kalley  Miller,  M.A. 

No.  21.   Tbe  Pbyslcal  Basis  of  Life,  vUh 

other  essays.    By  Thomas  H.Huxl')r, 
F.R.S. 

No.  23.    SeolnKandTblnklnc.  ByWilliaiU 

Kingdon  Chuord,  P.R.S. 

No.  33.   Scientific  Sophisms.    A  review  vf 

current  theories  concerning  Atoiffa,  | 
Apes  and  Men.  By  Samuel  Wain>* 
Wright,  D.D. 

No.  24.   Popular     Scientific     Leetura*,^ 

{illustrated).    By  Ptpf.  H.  HelmhoU? 

No.  25  Tbe  Origin  of  Nations.  ByProf.c 
Ceo.  Rawlinson,  Oxford  Universit}r4 

No.  36.   Tbe  Evolutionist  at  I<arge«    Bf< 

Grant  Allen. 

Na  27.  Tbe  History  ef  I<andboldllic> 
In  KnglHnd.  By  Joseph  Fisher,;) 
F.R.H.S. 

2To.vl    Fasblon  In  IDeformlty,  <is  illud> 
trated  in  the  customs  of  Barbarous- 
and  Civilized  Races,  {numerou  illus- 
trations).  By  William  Henry  Flower, 
F.R.S. 

Na  39.   Faets  and  Fictions  of  asoolonsl 

{numerous  illustratioHs).  ^  AndreW< 
WUson,  Ph.  D.  I 

No.  30.  TbM  Study  of  Words.  Fart  I.  9f- 
Richard  Chenevix  Trench.  , 

IT0.31.   Tbe  Study  Of  Words.    Partn.      < 

Na33.   Hereditary  Traits  and  Otbes 

Bssa]  1.    By  Richard  A.  Proctor- 


THE  Hrrfit%,^^^r  LIBRARY  OF  SCIENCE. 


1 


•  S9> 

IT0.36. 


▼IcnettM  firom  If  atnre. 


LUen. 


By  Grant 
of  Style.    By 


Th«  Phlloaopliy 

Hettert  Spencer. 

4>rlcBtal  R«llc<oBS.  By  John  Calrd, 
Pres.  Univ.  Glasgow,  and  Others. 


Iieetarea  on  KTolntlon.     {lUu*' 
fraud )     By  Prof.  T.  H.  Huxley. 

Ho.  37.   Six  liCctarM  on   I^lKht.     {IJltu- 


/ 

Ko.fi. 

Vo.^ 
Na4o. 


Ha  41. 


on 

irdUd  ).    9y  Prof.  Tym 

Qeoloarlcal  Skcteb«a.  Fart  I.  By 
^Lrchifaald  Geikie,  1  .R.a 

Gooloffleal  Sketolies.   Partn. 

TlkO  Kvldonce  of  Orcanio  Bto« 
lotion.  By  George  J.  Roinane% 
F.R.S. 

Cnnrent  DSacnaalon  In  Sclenee* 

By  W.  M.  Williams,  F.C.S. 

Blstorf  of  the  Science  «>f  Poll* 

By  Frederick  Pollock. 


1  and  Hnmboldt.  By  Prof. 

Huxley,  Prof.  Agassiz,  and  others. 

Now  4^   The  Down  of  Hletory*  Par«I.  By 
G.  P.  Keary,  of  the  British  Museum. 


No.i5. 
No.  46. 

I 

Ko.  47. 
No.  48. 
No.  49 

No.  50. 

No,  51. 
No.  53. 

Ho.  S3. 
No.  54. 
Ho-ss- 

Ho.  56. 
Sla  57. 
Ho.  58. 


The  Dawn  of  Hlatosry.  Tz^tn. 

The  IHeeaeee  of  nientory.     By 

Th.   Ribot.     Translated    from    the 
French  1^  J.  Fitzgerald,  M.A. 

The  Childhood  of  Rellclon.  By 

Edward  Clodd,  P.R.A.S. 

I<1'>  In  Nature.  {IllustraUd).  By 
james  Hinton. 

The  Snn  t  its  Constitution,  its  Fhe- 
nomena,  its  Condition.  By  Judge 
Nathan  T.  Carr. 

money  and  the  Rlechanleni 
Bxcnanfce 


By  Prof. 
Parti, 


W. 


of 

Stanley 


of 


By 
the 


Bua 

Jevons,  F,R.S, 

ISoney  an 

Excnance.    Part  II, 

The  IHeeaM*  of  the  Will. 

Th,   Ribot.     Translated    from 
French  t^  J.  Fitzgerald,  M.A, 

Animal  Antomatlun*  and  other 
Essays.  By  Prof.  T.  H.  Huxley,  F.R.S. 

The  Birth  and  Growth  of  RIyth. 

By  Edward  Clodd,  F.R,A,8. 

The  Selentlfle  Basis  of  morals* 

and  other  Essays.    "By  WiULim  King* 
don  Clifford.  F.R.8. 


ninslons* 
ninslons. 


By  James  SuUy. 
Partn. 


Parti. 


The  Orlstnef  Species.  By  Charles 
iJarwin.    Part  I.    (Double  number). 

The  Orlcln  of  Species*    Partn. 
(Doable  Number). 

She  Childhood  of  the  'World. 

By  Edward  Clodd,  V.VLK.S. 

mseellaneoos  Bsaafs.  By  Richard 
▲.Proctor. 


No.  63.  The  Bellfflous  of  the  Ancient 
UTorld.  By  Prof.  Geo.  Rawlinson, 
Univ.  of  Oxford.  (Double  number). 

No. 63.  Frocressl^e  morality.  ByThomaii 
Fowler,  I,L.D.,  President  f  *  CorouS 
Christi  Coll.,  Oxi'ord. 

No.  64.  The  DIstrlbntlon  of  AattlmalM 
and  Plants.  By  A,  Russell  Wal* 
lace  and  W,  T.  Thlstleton  Dyer. 

Ha<9.  Conditions  of  mental  DevelnM 
Btent*  and  other  Essays.  Bv  Wll 
liam  Kingdon  Clifford. 

No.  66.  Technical  Edacatlon.  and  other 
Essays  ^  Thomas  H.  Huxley,  F,R.S 

HOk  67.  She  BlacV  !;::eath.  An  account  of 
the  Great  Pestilence  of  the  14th  Ce»' 
tury.    By  J.  P.  C.  Hecker,  M.D. 


Na68. 
Na69. 


No.  70. 
NaTt. 

Ka73. 
No.  71. 


Three  Bssays.   By  Herbert  Spencer. 

Fetlchlsmi  A  Contribution  to  An* 
thropology  and  the  Histoiy  of  Reli> 

Son.     By   Fritz    Schultze,   7^.   U. 
touble  number). 


isays  Specolatlve  and  Practl> 
cal.    By  Herbert  Spencer. 

Anthropoloay*  By  Daniel  Wilson, 
Ph.  D  With  Appendix  on  Archsi> 
ology.    By  E,  B,  Tylor,  P,%.S. 

The  Danclns  mania  of 'the  l^^idp 
die  Aces.    By  J. F,  C,  B ecker,  ii.Tk 

Bvolatlon  In  History*  I<|in< 
y^ase  and  JSclence      " 


No. 

No. 
No, 
No. 


74. 


77. 


{ 


Na78. 


X,ife  and 
fnouble 


Four  adr 
dresses  delivered  at  the  London 
Crystal  Palace  School  of  Art  Scienc« 
asd  Literature. 

The  Descent  of  man*  and  Seleo 
tion  in  Relation  to  Sex,  (Numerout 
Illustrations).  By  Charles  Darwin. 
Nos.  74,  75, 76  are  single  JVos.;  No.  77  it 
a  double  No. 

Historical  Sketch  of  the  Dl» 
tribntlon  of  I^and  In  Kny' 
land.  By  William  Uoyd  Birbeck, 
M.A. 

No.  99.   Scientific  Aspect  of  iwme  Fanatfl' 
lar  Thincs.    By  W.  M.  Williams. 

No.  8ok   Charles   Damrln.     His 

Work,     By  Grant  Allen, 
Number). 

Na  81.   The  mystery  of  matter,  and  th* 
Philosophy    o  f     Ignorance. 

Two  Essays  by  J.  Allanson  Picton, 

No.  83.    ninslons  of  the  Senses,  and  other 
Essays.    By  Richard  A.  Proctor. 

No.  83.  Proflt-Sharlns   Bet^reen  Capl« 
tal  and  I<abor.     Six  E"sava.   Bf 

Sedley  Taylor,  M  A. 

No.  84.  Studies   of    Anlm«S«a   Natnre. 

Four  Essays  on  Natural  History.    "Bg 
W.  S.  Dallas,  F.L.S.,  and  Others. 

Ne.8s>  Vhe  Bssentlal  Nature  of  Bellsi^ 
ion.   ^  J.  Allanson  Picton. 

Na.y*  The  Unseen    ITnlrerse,  sm.     m 

Philosophy  of  the  Pure  Sdeoces.    B* 
Prof.  W^.  Kingdon  Clifford,  F.K.& 

HObtr.  The  morphine  HaUt.    BySr.  & 
'  the  Paris  Faculty  of  Medldna 


Ball,  of  t£ 


IP 


V, 


\ 


NJ 


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Ko.  88.  Selenee  and  €rlnie  and  other 
Saaays.   By  Andrew  Wilson,  P.R.S.S. 

Ko,  89.  The  Geneala  of  Science*  By  Her- 
bert Spencer. 

,11a  gv  Hotea  on  Barthqnakeat  wltb 
Fourteen  Miscellaneous  Sssays.  By 
Richard  A.  Proctor. 

K0.91.    The  Blae  of  VnlTeniltlea.     Bir 

8.  S.  lAorie,  I<I,.D.  (Double  number). 

Ha  at.  The  Formation  of  Vegetable 
Moald  throuBh  the  Action  of 
Barth  'Worma.  By  Charles  Dar> 
win,  X,X,.T>.,  P.R.S.  (Double  number). 

Hags.  Sclentlfle  RIethoda  of  Capital 
Punlahment.  ByJ.MountBleyer, 
M.D. 

Ila9|.  The  Faciora  of  Organic  EtoIo" 
tlon*    By  Xlerbert  Spencer. 

K0.QS.   ThelMaeaaeaofPeraonallty.  By 

Th.    Ribot.      Tt^nslated    from  the 
French  by  J.  Fitzgerald,  MA. 

Kb.  96.   A  Half-€entnrT  of  Science.   By 

Thomas  H.  Huxley,  and  Grant  Allen. 

By  Sir 

the 

Teachlnaa  of  Science*    By  wil- 

;aon  ~"'~ 

Kaog.  Natnre  Stndlew.  By  Prof.  P.  R. 
Eaton  I^owej  Dr.  Robert  Brown, 
P  :c.S  ;  Geo.  G.  Chisholm,  P.R.G.S,; 
and  James  Dallas,  P.I,.S. 

Nawa  Science  and  Poetry,  ivlth 
other  Eaaaya*  By  Andrew '^Vilson, 
F.RS.H. 

yam.  JBathetleaj  Dreama  and  Jlaao> 
elation  of  Ideaa.  By  Jamea 
Sully  and  Geo.  Croom  Robertson. 

Va SM. .  Ultimate  Finance;  A  True 
Theory  of  Co-operation,     By 

William  Nelson  Black. 

Utah  MS.  The  Oomlnc  Slavery  t  The  SIna 
of  IieKlaiatora;  The  Great 
Political    Superatltlon.       By 

Herbert  Spencer. 


Ha  97.   The  Pleaanrea  of  I<UiB. 

John  I,ubbock. 

Emotion  t    Alao 


KaslB. 


Coamlo 

TeacI       „ 

liam  Kingdbn  Clifford. 


Ha  KM. 

Ha  soft. 
Kaio;. 

VaM9^ 


Tropical  Afkrica. 

mond,  F.R.S. 


By  Henty  Drum* 


Freedom  In  S«lence  and 
Teaching.  By  Ernst  Haeckel,  of 
the  University  of  Jena.  With  a  pref- 
atory Note  by  Prof.  Huxley. 

Force  and  Energy.  A  Theory 
of  Dynamica*    By  Grant  Allen. 

Ultimate  Finance.  A  True 
Theory  of  Wealth*  By  William 
Nelson  Black. 

Bncllah,   Paat    and    Preaent< 

By  Richard  Chenevix Trench.   Parti. 
(Double  number). 

Bncllah,  PiMt    and    Freaent* 

Part  11. 
The  Story  of  Creation.  A  Plain 
Account    of   BTOltttlon.      By 

Hdward  Clodd.    (Doable  number). 

The  Pleaanrea  of  liMs*  Partn. 
^f  fits  Joba  Lubbock. 


Ko.  iia.   Paychology  of  Attention.    B} 

Th.    Ribot.      Translated    froirt    th« 
French  by  J.  Fitzgerald,  M.A. 

Nati3.  Hypnotlam.  Its  History  and  l>evel> 
opnient.  By  Fredrik  Bjomstrdm, 
M.D.,  Head  Physician  of  the  Stoctoi 
holm  Hospital,  Professor  of  Psychiap 
try.  I.^te  Royal  Swedish  Medical 
Councillor.  Authorized  Translation 
from  the  Second  Swedish  Edition  by 
Baron  Nils  Posse,  M.G.,  Director  of 
*he  Boston  School  of  Gymnastics. 
(DouLle  number). 

Ndb  114.  C^hrlatlanlty  and  Agnoatlclam. 
A  Coi.>troTerav.  Consisting  of 
papers  contritmted  to  The  NineUentH 
Century  by  Henry  Wace  D.D.,  Prof. 
Thos.  H.  Huxley,  The  Bishop  of 
PetersborouKh,  W.  H.  Mallock,  Mrs. 
Humphrey  Ward.    (Double  number).* 

Ka  119.  Darivlnlam  t  An  Exposition  of  the 
Theory  of  Natural  Selection,  with 
some  of  its  Applications.  By  Alfred 
Russel  Wallace,  LL.D.,  P.t.S.,  eta 
Illustrated.  Parti.  (Double number). 

Ka  116.  Danvlnlam.  Illustrated.  Part  H. 
(Double  number). 

K0.117.   nXodern   Science. and  miodent 
.Thougljt.  ByS.  I,aing.  Illustrated. 
(Double  number). 

Ko.  ti8.  modem  Science  and  modern 
Thought.    Part  II. 

Ka  Ii9b  The  Electric  lilght  and  The  Stor. 
ing  of  Electrical  Energy.  Illustrated. 
Gerald  Molloy,  D.D.,  D.Sc. 

Katao.   The  modern  Theory  of  Heat 

and  The  Sun   as   a    Storehouse  of 
Ener^.  Illustrated.  Gerald  Molloy, 
D.D.,  D.Sc. 
Utilitarlanlam.     By  John  Stuart 
Mill, 


Kaisu 
Kaiaa. 


Upon  the  Origin  of  Alpine  and 
Italian  I^akea  and  upon  Glacial 
Erosion.  Maps  and  Illustrations.  By 
Ramsey,  Ball,  Murchison,  Stude^ 
Favre,  Whymper  and  Spencer.  Pari 
I.    (Double  number). 

Ka  us.   Upon  the  Origin  of  Alpine  and^ 
Italian  liakea,  Etc..  Etc.   Part  11/ 

Ka  M|.   The   <|nlnteaaence    of    Social* 

lam.    By  Prof.  A.  SchUffle. 

By 


!Dar«v1nIam  and  Polltica* 
David  G.  Ritchie,  MA. 
AdmlnlatratlTe  NIhUlam. 
Thomas  Huxley,  P.R.S. 


B> 


Ka  lafi.   Phyatognomy  and  Expreaalon* 

By  P  Mantegazza.  Illustrated.  Part 
J.    (Double  number). 

Ka  137.  Phyalognomy  and  Bxpreaalon«l 

Part  II.    (Double  number).  f 

KauBi   The    Indnatrlal    Bevolntlon.. 

By  AmoU  Toynbee,  Tutor  of  Baliol, 
-  ■■         -   .     .     .^jjj,  ^  gijQrt  mem* 


Part  I.     (Doublt 


College,  Oxford, 
oir  by  B.  Jowett. 
number). 

KaSMb  The    Indnatrlal     BeTOlntloB»} 

Pttrtn.    (Double  number).  * 

Ka  na  The  Origin  of  the  Aryana*   ftf 

Dr.  Isaac  Taylor.    lUuatiatcd.    Su* 
I.   (Double  number). 


T 


THE  HUMBOLDT  LIBRAR  Y  OF  SCIENCE, 


No.  131.    Tbe  OrlKtn  of  the  Aryans*  Part 

II.    (Double  number). 
Nb.  \yi.    The  Brolntlon  of  Sex*    By  Prof. 

P.  Oeddea  and  J.  Arthur  Thomson. 

Illustrated.  Parti    (Double number). 
Vo.  133.    The  Bvolntlon  or  Sex.    Part  II. 

(Double  number). 
Mo.  134.    The  Lavr  of  PrlTAte  Blckt.    By 

George  11.  Smith.    1  Double  number). 
Vo.  135.    Capital.    A  Critical  Analysis  of  Cap- 

iUlist  Production.     By  Karl  Marx. 

Parti.    (Double  number). 
170.136.    Capital.    Part  II      (Double  number). 
Mo.  137.    Capital.    Part  III.  (Double  number) 
No.  138.    Capital.    Part  IV.  (Double  number). 
No.  139,    lilchtnlns.  Thunder  and  Lightning 

Conductors.    Illustrated.     By  Gerald 

Molloy,  D  D.,  D  8c. 
N0.140.    tirhat  iM  Mu'lcl    With  an  appen- 
dix on  How  the  Geometrical  Lines 
,  Viave  their  Counterparts  in  Music. 

By  Isaac  L.  Rice. 
Ko.  141.    Are  the  BOfecta  of  I7se  aiML  IMif 

n«e  inhertted  f    By  William  Piatt 

Ball. 
No.  143.    A  Vindication  of  the  Rlchte  of 

UToman.    By  Mary  Wollstonecraft. 

With  an  Introduction  by  Mrs.  Henry 

Fawcet.    Part  I.   (Double  number). 
^'o.  143.    A  Vindlratlon  of  the  RiKhle  of 

fironian.    Part  II.    (Double  num- 
ber! 
No.  144.    CiTlllxatlon t    Its    Cause    and 

Cnre.    By  Eaward  Carpenter 
No.  145.    Bodjr   and    Mind.      By  William 
,  Kingdon  ClifTord. 

'No.  146.    Soelal     INaeases    and     Worse 

Remedies.   By  Thomas  H.  Huxley, 

F.R.S. 
^o.  147.    The  Soul  of  Man  under  Social- 

Ism.    By  Oscar  Wilde. 
No.  148.    Blectrlelty.  the  Science  of  the 

Nineteenth  CeAtnry.     By  B.  C. 

Caillard.  (Illustrated)  Parti.  (Dou- 
ble number). 


No. 
No. 


I»o. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 

Na 


149' 
150, 


rji. 

«53- 

»54- 

159. 


No.  160. 


No. 
No. 

No. 
No. 

No. 
No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 

No. 


161, 
163, 

163. 
164. 

167, 

x68, 

169, 

170, 

I7« 

172 
173 
'74. 
»75. 
176, 


BlMtrtcltr.    Part'l. 
Deceeeratlon;    A    Chapter   l« 

JDar^vlnlsm.    liluatrated.    By  %. 

Ray  Dankester,  M.A.,  I,L.D.,  P.R.S. 
mental  SnKSestlon.      By  Dr.  J. 

Ochorowlcs.  Part  I  ( Double  number}. 
mental  Sncfcstlon^    PartU. 

(Double  number) 
mental  SuKcestlon*   FartlU, 

(Double  number.) 
mental  Sncicestlon*   Part  TV. 

(Double  number), 

modern  Science;  The  Selene* 
of  the  Future.  By  Bdward  Car< 
penter.  P 

Studies  In  Pessimism.  BySchop) 

enhauer.  I' 

fFlowrersf    Fruits  and   LearesJ 

<  Illustrated.     By  Sir  John  Lubbock, 
i     P.R.S.    (Double number). 

I  Glimpses  of  Nature.    Illustrated. 

<  By  Dr.  Andrew  Wilson,  P.  R.S.B.  Part 
(    I.    (Double  cumber). 

Glimpses  of  Nature.   Part  IT. 
Problems    of  the   Fntur'^.     By 

Samuel  Lang.    Part  I. 
Problems  of  the  Fntun      Part 

II.  (Double  number). 
Problems  of  the  Future.    Part 

III.  (Double  number ). 

The  m<>ral  Teaehlncs  of  Sct« 
enee.    By  Arabella  B.  Buckley. 

The  Wisdom  of  I<lfe.  By  Schop- 
enhauer.   (Double  number). 

The  mystery  of  Pain.  By  Jamea 
Hinton. 

What  Is  Property  f  An  inquiry 
ciple  of  P 


1 


into  the  Prindple  of  Right  and  of 
Government.  By  P.  J.  Proudhon. 
(Four  double  numbers,  $1.20). 

The    History    and    Scope 


No.  177. 


Zoolojgy.    By  B.  Ray  Lankester, 
Bvolutlon  and  Bthles. 

T.  H.  Huxley. 


A    NEW   SERIES. 


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I.   Six    Centuries    of    Work    and 

Waces.      By    Tames    B.    Thorold 

Rogers,  M.P.    Abridged,  with  charts 

and  summary.     By  W.  D.  P.  Bliss. 

Introduction  by  Prof.  R.  T.  BW. 

V0.3.   The  Socialism  of  John  Stuart 

mill.    The  only  collection  of  MiU's 

Writings  on  Sooalism. 

Ko.  3.   The  Socialism  and  ITnsoelalIsm 

*  of  Thomas  Carlyle.  A  collection 

of  Carlylc's  social  writings ;  together 

with  Joseph  Maczini's  famous  essay 

protesting   against  Carlyle's  views. 

iHo.  4.   The  Socialism  and  Vnsoclallsm 
of  Thomas  Carlyle.   VolJI. 


No.  5.    W^llllam*  morrlS)    Poet,  ^.TiMi^ 

Socialist.     A  selection  from  fair 

writings  together  with  a  sketch  of 

the  man.    Hdited  by  Fraads  Watts 

Lee. 
No.  6.   The    Fabian    Bssays.     American 

Bdition,  with  Introductloc  and  Notes 

by  H.  G.  Wilshire. 
No.  7.    The     BeoBontlcs      of     Herbert 

Speneer.    By  W.  C.  Owen. 
No.  8.   The  Communism  of  John  Bas< 

kin. 
No.  9.   Horace  Greeley  and  other  ^Plo« 

neers  of  American  Soelalisz;?, 

By  Charles  Sotheran. 

Social  Number,  33  ctnts,  i»  Ai/«r  C«tw 


F.R.S. 
Dr.  J. 
nberj. 

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Part 

p. 
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quiry 
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ter.  ^ 


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ninatonfft  A  PsycholoKlcal  Study.    By 

Tames  Sully,  author  of  "Sensation  and  Intu- 
ition '    "Pessimism,"  etc.    Cloth.  .  .75 cts 


The  Pleasures  of  litfe.  Part  I.  and  Part 
II.  By  Sir  John  Lubbock,  Bart.  Two  Parts 
in  One.    Cloth 75  cts. 

Engllah)  Past  and  Present.  Part  I.  and 
Part  II.  By  Richard  Chenevix  Trench,  D.D., 
Archbishop  of  Dublin.  Two  Parts  in  One. 
Cloth 75  cts 

Hypnotism  t  Its  History  and  Present 
Develoinnen*-  By  Predrik  BjSrastrfim, 
M.D.,  Head  Physician  of  the  Stockholm  Hos- 

giul,  Professor  of  Psychiatry,-  late  Royal 
wedish  Medical  Conncillor.    Cloth  .  ,  75  cU 


THE  HUMBOLDT  LIBRAR  Y  OF  SCIENCE. 


Tke  Storr  ot  Creation.  A  Plain  Account 
of  Kvolution.  By  Edward  Clodd,  P.R.A.S. 
With  over  eighty  lllu»tratlons 73  cU 

Clirlatlaiiltr  and  AcnoMlelam.  A  con- 
troversy, consisting  of  papers  by  Henry 
Wace,  D.D..  Prebendary  of  St.  Paul's  Ca'he- 
dral;  Principal  of  King's  College,  London. 
Profe.H<ior  Thomas  H.  Huxley.— W.  C.  Magee, 
D.D.,  Bishop  of  I'etersborough.— W.  H.  Mal- 
lock,  Mrs.  Humphrey  Ward.    Cloth  .  .  75  eta 

VarivlnUmi  An  BxBOBlllon  of  the 
Tli<>orjr  of  Matuml  Selection*  with 
some  of^ its  applications.  By  Alfred  Russel 
Wai'ace,  LLD.,  K.r..S.  With  portrait  of  the 
autnor,  colored  map,  and  numerous  illu.4tra- 
lions.    Cloth f i.i5 

The  ablest  living  Darwiniac  writer.— Ciwciw- 
hati  Commercial  Gatette, 

The  most  importantcontrihution  to  the  study 
•f  the  origin  of  species  and  the  evolution  <>f  man 
which  has  been  published  since  Darwin's  death. 
•— Atw  York  Sun. 

There  is  no  better  hook  than  this  in  which 
lo  look  fur  an  intelligent,  complete,  and  fair 
presentation  uf  both  sides  of  the  discussion  on 
evolution. — New  York  Herald, 

modern  Science  and  modern  Thought. 

A  Clear  and  Concise  View  of  the  Principal 
Results  of  Modern  Science,  and  of  the  Revo- 
lution which  they  have  effected  in  Modern 
Thought.  With  a  Supplemental  Chapter  on 
Oladatone's  "l>awn  of  Creation"  and 
"Proem  to  Genesis,"  and  on  Drummond 
"Natural  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World."  By 
8.  lUting.     Cloth 7Scts 


Upon  the  Orlcln  of  Alpine  and  Italian 
limkea ;  ana  Vpon  Olanlal  Erosion. 

By  A.  C.  Ramsay,  F.R.S.,  Etc.;  John  Ball, 
M.R.I.A.,  F.L.S.,  Ftc;  Sir  Roderick  I.  Mur- 
chison,  F.R.S.,  I  L.,  Etc.;  Prof.  B.  Studer. 
of  Berne ;  Prof.  •.  Favre,  of  Geneva ;  ana 
Bdward  Whymper.  With  an  Introduction, 
anu  Notes  upon  the  American  Lakes,  by  Prof. 
J.  W.  Spencer,  Ph.D.,  F.G.S  ,  State  Geologist 
of  Georgia.     Cloth 75  cts 

PhTaloffnomr    and     Expreaalon.      By 

Paolo  Mantegazza,  Senator ;  Director  of  the 
National    Museum   of    Anthropologyj   Flor- 
ence ;    President   of  the  Italian  Society  of 
Anthropology.    With  Illustrations. 
Cloth .  |i.oo 

Vhe  Industrial  Revolution  of  the 
Blghteenth   Ceuiury   In    England. 

Popular  Addresses,  Notes,  and  other  Frag- 
ments. By  the  late  Arnold  Toynbee.  Tutor 
of  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  Togei.  er  with  a 
short  memoir  t>y  B.  Jowett,  Master  of  Balliol 
College,  Oxford.    Cloth $1.00 

Vhe  Origin  of  the  Aryans.  An  Account  of 
the  Prehistoric  Ethnology  and  Civilization 
of  Europe.  By  Isaac  Taylor,  M.A.,  Litt.  D  , 
Hon.  LL-D.     Illustrated.     Cloth  ....  |i.oo 

IThe  I^aiir  of  PrlTate  Rlyht.  By  George 
H.  Smith,  author  of  "Elements  of  Right, 
and  of  the  Law,"  and  of  Essays  on  "The 
tertaintjcof  the  Law,  and  the  Uncertainty  of 
fudicial  Decisions,"  "The  True  Method  of 
Legal  Education,"  Btc..  Etc.    Cloth.  .75  eta 


The  BToIutloi 

Geddes  an  t  J. 
Illuatratloui. 


1  Of  ■•K.  By  Prof.  PaUHok 
Arthui  Thomwn.  With  104 
Cloth Ii.oo 


Such  a  work  aa  this,  written  by  Prof.  Gedd(>t 
who  has  contributed  maoy  articles  on  the  same 
and  kindled  subjects  to  the  Encyclopaedia  Brit- 
taunica,  and  by  Mr.  J.  Arthur  Tnomaon,  is  not 
for  the  specialist,  though  the  spedalist  may  find 
it  good  reading,  nor  for  the  reader  of  light  litet^ 
ature,  thoush  the  latter  would  do  well  to  ffrspplt 
with  it.  Thou*  who  have  followed  MnHn, 
Wallace,  Huxley  and  Haeckel  in  their  various 
publications,  and  have  heard  of  the  late'  argu- 
ments against  heredity  brought  forward  by  Prof. 
Weissman,  will  not  be  likely  to  jut  it  down 
unread.  .  .  .  The  authors  have  some  extremely 
interesting  ideas  to  state,  particularly  with 
regard  to  the  great  Questions  of  sex  and  environ- 
ment in  their  relation  to  the  growth  of  life  on 
earth.  .  .  .  They  are  to  be  congratulated  on  th« 
scholarly  and  clear  way  in  which  they  have 
handled  a  difficult  and  delicate  autject.— TTism*. 

Capital  t  A  Critical  Analysis  of  Capi- 
talistic Production.  By  Karl  Marx. 
Translated  from  the  third  German  edition 
by  Samuel  Moore  and  Edward  Aveling,  and 
editetl  by  Frederick  Engels.  Theonly  Ameri- 
can Edition.    Carefully  Revised,    Cloth,  I1.75 

The  great  merit  of  Marx,  therefore,  lies  la 
the  work  he  has  done  as  a  scientific  inquirer  into 
the  economic  movement  of  modem  times,  as  the 
philosophic  historian  of  the  capitalistic  era.— 
Kncycloptedia  Brittannica. 

So  great  a  position  has  not  been  won  bj  .;«■» 
work  on  Economic  Science  since  tlie  appearance 
oi  The  Wealth  0/ JVations.  .  .  .  All  these  circum- 
stances invest,  therefore,  the  teachings  of  this 
particularly  acute  thinker  with  an  interest  such 
as  cannot  be  claimed  by  any  other  thinker  of  the 
present  day.— 7"A*  Athenceum. 

What  Is  Property?  An  Inquiry  into  the 
Principle  of  Rii;ht  and  of  Government.  By 
P.  J.   Proudhon.    Cloth |3.oo 

Thd  Phllosopli  y  of  Ifllsery.  A  System  of 
Economical  Contradictions.  By  P.  J.  Proud- 
hon.   Cloth |3.os 


Works  hj  Professor  Hnxlejf. 

Evidence  as  to  man's  Place  In  Natu*** 

With  numerous  illustrations 

AND 

On  the  Origin  of  Species  ;  or*  the  Causes 
of  the  Phenomena  of  Organic 
Nature. 

Two  books  in  one  volume.    Cloth  .  .  .  7S  eta 


The  Physical  Baala.  of  lAtt*   With  other 
Essays 

AHD 

licctnrea  on  Evolution.    With  ac  A.ppen> 
dix  on  the  Study  of  Biology. 
Two  books  in  one  volume.   Cloth ...  nets 


8el< 

For 

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Lew 
Six 


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Pr« 

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Th< 
Th< 


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THE  HUMBOLDT  LIBRARY  OF  SCIENCE. 


Aalmal  Aatomatlam 

AND 

TMhnlcal     Edoeatlon,     vvUh     ^Xk»r 

Two  booka  In  one  volume.    Cloth  ...  75  eta 

Select  Works  of  Prof.  John  Tjndall. 

Forma  of  Water  In  Clonda  andl  BlTcr*) 
Ie«  and  Olader*.  Nineteen  iUuttrations. 

Lesaoiu  In  Bleetrleltjr.  Sixty  illustrations. 

Mx  Lectures  on  Iilcht<    Illustrated. 

Three  booka  in  one  volume.  Cloth  .  .  .  |i.oo 

Workg  by  Herbert  Spencer. 

Th«  Data  of  Bttalea.    Cloth 79  eta 


Bdoeatloni  Intelleetnal,  moral)  and 
Phyiiloalf 

AND 

Procreaat  Its  I<a«v  and  Oanast    With 
other  Disquisitions. 
Two  books  in  one  volume.    Cloth  .  .  .  73  eta 


Tho  Ctonesla  of  Seleneej 

AND 

The  Factors  of  Orcanlo  Bvolntlon. 

Two  books  In  one  volume.     Cloth  .  .  .  75  cts 

Select  Works  of  Grant  Allen. 

Tbe  Bvolatlonlet  at  Larse. 

VlcnettcM  firom  Nature. 

Force  and  BnerKF*  A  Theory  of  Dynamics. 
Three  booka  in  one  volume.  Cloth  .  .  .  |i.oo 

Select  Works  of  Richard  A.  Proctor, 

Jt  .K.A.k). 
Iilcht  Science  for  liClenre  Hours. 

Familiar   Bssajrs   on   Scientific    Sub- 
jects. 

Hereditary  Traltsj  and  otber  Bssays. 

niscellaneons  Bssays. 

ninslons   of  tbe    SenseS}   and    otber 

Bssajrs. 
H  otes  on  Bartbqualies«  ^irltli  Fourteen 

niseellaneous  Bssays. 

8lz  books  in  one  volume $1.50 

Select  Works  of  William  Kin^on 
Clifford,  F.B.A.8. 

SeeuMC  and  Tblnhlng. 
She  SelentMc  Baal*  of  noialS) 
•tliarBMiijrs* 


Conditions  of  Mental  DcTclopment, 
and  other  Bssays. 


The  Unseen  Universe.— Also,  The  Phi* 
iosophjr  of  the  .Pure  Sciences. 

Oosmle  Emotion.— Also,  The  Teachings 
of  Science. 

Pive  books  in  one  volume.    Cloth  .  .  .  fi.as 

Select  Works  of  Edward  Clodd, 
F.R.A.S. 

The  Childhood  of  Rellclons. 

The  Birth  and  Growth  of  lOljrths  and 
liCBonds. 

The  Childhood  of  thtt  ITorld. 

Three  books  in  one  volume.  Cloth  .  .  .  %\f 

Select  Works  of  Th.  Rlbot 

The  Diseases  of  Memory. 
The  Diseases  of  the  Will. 

The  Diseases  of  Personality. 

Three  books  in  one  volume.   Cloth  .  .  .  |i.oe 

.    The  Milky  Way. 

CONTAINING 

The  Wonders  of  the  HeaTcns.  With 
thirty-two  Actinoglyph  Illustrations.  By 
Camille  Flammarlon. 

The  Bomance  of  Astronomy.     By  R. 

Kalley  Miller,  M.A. 

The  Sunt  Its  Constitution}  Its  Phe« 
nomena;  It«  Condition.  By  Nathan 
T.  Carr,  IX.M. 

Three  books  in  one  volume.  Cloth  .  .  .  |i.oe 

Political  Science. 

CONTAINING 

Physics  and  Politics.  An  Application  of 
the  Principles  of-  Natural  Selection  and 
Heredity  to  Political  Society.  By  Walter 
Bagehot,  author  of  "The  English  Constitu- 
tion," 

History  of  tb«>  Science  of  Politics.    By 

Frederick  Pollock. 

Two  books  in  one  volume.    C!oth  .  .  .  75  eta 


The  Land  Qnestion. 

CONTAINING 

The  Hlntory  of  Landholdlno:  In  BnC" 
land.    Py  Joseph  Fisher,  P.R  H.S. 

HIstorteal  Sketch  of  the  Dlstrtbntlon 
of  loind  In  Bngland.  By  William 
UoydBirkbeck,  MA. 

Two  booka  in  one  volumt.    Cloth  .  .  .  75  cts 


THE  HUMBOLDT  LIBRARY  OF  SCIENCE. 


geleet  Works  of  Andrew  Wilson, 

F.R.8.E. 

sa«ac«  •n4  Crlm«,  •n«  otlier  BMays. 

•deuM  *■««  Poetry,  •■«  otker  EMays. 

Two  boolM  in  one  volume.    Cloth.  .  .75«t« 

gelect  Works  Of  W.M«ttleu  Williams, 

F.I».A*S.,  F.C.8. 
CWTMBt  ViwtVLUiAoyck  In  Fcleuee* 

lelentlfic  Aspects  of  Some  F*mUl*r 
Tblncs* 

Two  books  in  one  volume.    Cloth  .  .  .  75  «'t8 

Select  Works  of  J.  F.  C.  Hecker,  M.D. 

Vhe   Blaek    Deatb.     Au  Account  of  the 
Deadly  Pestilence  of  the  Fourteenth  Century. 


Works  bj  Charles  Darwin. 

The  Orlcln  of  »p««l««  »y  Mtmmuot 
Natnral  ■etoellon,  or  the  Preservation 
of  Favored  Races  in  the  Struggle  for  Life. 
New  Edition,  from  the  latest  English  edition^ 
witn  additions  and  corrections.   Cloth,  |i.a$ 

Th«  DeMsent  of  MaByMMl  Bdedion  In 
■AlattoB  «o   Sex.     With  iUustrationa. 
New  edition,  revised  and  augmented. 
Cloth • »^S* 

Tbe  Formatton  of  V«««laWe  nconld 
•fltroasb  the  Action  of  Bart** 
worms,  with  observations  on  their  Hab- 
its.   Illustrated.  Cloth 75  "Hs 

A  COMPAmON-BOOK  TO  DARWWB  ■WORKS: 

Oliarles  iNurwInt  His  KJfe  and  Wtsrlt. 

ByGnmtAUen.  Cloth 75Ct» 

Select  Works  by  J.  AUanson  Plcton. 


Tlte  Mystery  of  l!Iatter.-Al8o  1»e  Fhl- 


The  Humboldt  Publishing  Co., 


64    Fll^tlni    Avenue, 


New    York:    City 


Pretervatioii 

git  for  Life. 

Slisb  edition^ 

Cloth,  |i.a$ 

iUustrationa. 
iated. 
$i.S» 

Me  raovld 

n  their  Hab- 

75^ 

[•s  'woitm: 
»ad  HVc^rlK. 

75CU1 

OB  Ficten* 

soVkeVtal- 

ell8l«n* 

otk.  .  .75et» 


0., 


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